. 

MJJf 


tt    * 

14 


W.  IRVING    CROWLEY 

Spanish  Interpreter 

Edison  Building 
U.  S.  N.  Aid  for  Information  CHICAGO 


ELEMENTARY 

SWEDISH  GRAMMAR 


BY 

A.  LOUIS  ELMQUIST 

Northwestern  University 


CHICAGO 

THE  ENOBERG-HOLMBE1RG  PUBLISHING  CO. 
1914 


Copyright  1914  by 
A.  Louis  Elmquist 


PREFACE. 

Under  present  conditions  the  chief  aim  of  one  writing 
a  Swedish  grammar  from  the  point  of  view  of  English- 
speaking  persons  should  be  to  give  an  accurate  and  clear 
statement  of  the  facts.  The  question  of  this  or  that 
modern  method  must  as  yet,  at  least,  remain  secondary. 
Moreover,  the  presentation  as  well  as  the  contents  must 
be  such  that  the  grammar  can  be  used  to  the  fullest  ad- 
vantage by  students  with  very  different  qualifications. 

This  book  has  been  written  to  meet  the  point  of  view 
of  the  student  who  knows  nothing  at  all  about  Swedish, 
no  previous  knowledge  of  the  language  being  taken  for 
granted.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  book  will 
be  used  largely  by  students  already  able  to  understand 
simple  Swedish.  It  has  therefore  seemed  unnecessary  to 
lay  so  much  stress  on  the  translation  exercises  as  it 
would  otherwise  perhaps  have  been  well  to  do.  Those 
already  able  to  read  Swedish  will  naturally  begin  at 
once  reading  the  available  text-editions  in  connection 
with  their  work  in  the  grammar.  For  these,  also,  re- 
production in  connection  with  this  reading,  and  original 
composition,  will  be  most  profitable. 

The  grammatical  material  has  with  few  exceptions 
"been  presented  connectedly  (see  page  14).  This  will 
make  possible  the  acquisition  of  a  clear  view  of  the  en- 
tire subject,  and  will  facilitate  reference.  In  many  cases 
the  long  lessons  will  have  to  be  divided;  in  connection 
with  the  reading  in  the  text-editions  this  will  present 
no  difficulty. 


IV 


I  want  to  call  special  attention  to  the  material  given 
under  the  headings  PRONUNCIATION,  ORTHOGRAPHY, 
ACCENT  and  COLLOQUIALISMS.  A  considerable  part  of 
this  will  in  perhaps  most  cases  be  used  to  the  greatest 
advantage  in  connection  with  a  review  or  a  more  ad- 
vanced study  of  the  grammar.  The  book  is  so  constructed 
that  there  is  no  need  of  including  any  part  of  this  in 
the  first  study  of  the  book.  It  is  my  hope,  however, 
that  users  of  the  book  will  at  all  times  draw  abundantly 
from  the  important  material  therein  contained. 

Under  the  heading  PRONUNCIATION  in  each  lesson 
are  listed  the  words  from  that  lesson  that  are  likely  to 
give  difficulty,  particularly  to  non-Swedes.  Reference  is 
usually  made  to  the  introduction  on  pronunciation,  or  to 
my  Phonology.  I  think  it  is  desirable  for  students  who 
already  speak  the  language  to  acquire  a  real  knowledge 
of  the  rules  of  Swedish  pronunciation.  This  could  not 
have  been  accomplished  so  well  by  the  use  of  phonetic 
transcription,  which  I  might  otherwise  have  employed, 
had  the  types  been  available.  The  introduction  on  pro- 
nunciation, too,  has  been  so  constructed  that  it  should 
invite  real  acquisition  rather  than  a  purely  formal  sur- 
vey. My  Phonology  of  the  Swedish  Language,  a  book  of 
about  fifty  pages  that  will  be  published  before  January, 
1915,  goes  into  the  subject  in  more  detail,  still  dealing 
only  with  essential  things.  I  retain  in  the  introduction 
on  sounds  the  customary  terms  "hard"  and  "soft" 
vowels,  notwithstanding  the  expressed  preference  on  the 
part  of  some  for  the  terms  "back"  and  "front".  The 
use  of  these  latter  terms  in  the  connection  in  which 
"hard"  and  "soft"  are  used  would  be  incorrect  in  treat- 
ing of  the  modern  language  (see  Noreen,  Vart  Spraky 
Vol.  I,  page  389).  Owing  to  a  misunderstanding  it  be- 


came  impossible  to  use  anywhere  the  customary  mark  of 
the  grave  accent  in  marking  the  irregular  position  of  the 
stress.  My  use  of  the  sign  '  therefore  does  not  necessarily 
signify  the  acute  accent;  it  simply  marks  the  position  of 
the  stress.  I  have  relegated  to  the  Phonology  all  men- 
tion of  the  differences  between  the  older  and  the  new 
orthography. 

In  the  attention  given  to  ACCENT  (acute  and  grave) 
in  each  lesson,  I  hope  I  have  made  this  difficult  subject 
more  accessible  than  heretofore.  In  connection  with  this 
detail  the  brief  account  given  in  the  introduction  should 
be  thoroughly  mastered.  A  considerably  more  complete 
treatment  of  accent  will  be  found  in  my  Phonology. 
Owing  to  the  great  lack  of  uniformity  in  accentual 
matters  in  Sweden  there  will  in  some  instances,  no  doubt, 
be  differences  of  opinion.  I  have  in  no  case  either  in 
the  matter  of  accent  or  pronunciation,  nor,  indeed,  any- 
where else  in  the  grammar  given  preference  to  my  own 
local  inclinations. 

Another  radical  departure  from  all  other  similar  works 
is  in  the  attention  I  have  given  to  the  spoken  language. 
It  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly  to  persons  also 
speaking  English  that  it  is  in  a  great  many  details  in- 
correct in  speaking  Swedish  to  use  the  language  of  the 
books.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  not  incorrect  to  use  the 
colloquialisms  in  speaking  to  anybody.  Notwithstanding 
the  urgent  suggestion  of  eminent  scholars  that  I  use  the 
terms  "higher  style"  and  "lower  style",  I  have  decided 
to  retain  the  terms  "spoken  language"  and  "written 
language".  This  I  have  done  because  I  am  convinced 
that  the  terms  chosen  are  pedagogically  better  under  ex- 
isting conditions  among  users  of  the  language  of  our 
country.  I  have  wanted  to  say  to  the  student:  "This 


VI 

is  the  language  you  will  find  in  the  books,  but  that  is 
the  way  you'll  have  to  talk."  The  American  would 
hesitate  to  use  a  form  of  speech  said  to  be  lower  stylist- 
ically. There  is  at  present  in  Sweden  a  growing  ten- 
dency to  use  more  of  the  characteristics  of  the  spoken 
language  in  the  written.  Among  the  best  writers  I 
would  call  attention  especially  to  Selma  Lagerlof  in  this 
connection,  particularly  in  the  recent  revised  edition  of 
her  works  (for  text-editions,  see  Appendix  V).  No 
small  amount  of  the  material  mentioned  under  colloquial- 
isms in  this  grammar  is  frequently  found  also  in  books. 
While  I  have  in  many  instances  called  attention  to  this, 
my  failure  to  do  so  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  that  the 
word,  form  or  construction  in  question  does  not  occur 
also  in  the  written  language.  In  the  case  of  colloquial 
matters  pertaining  only  to  certain  sections  of  the  country, 
I  have  not  aimed  in  every  case  to  specify  the  locality. 
No  teacher  will  want,  perhaps,  to  emphasize  all  the  collo- 
quialisms mentioned;  this  is  particularly  true  of  local 
matters  of  the  kind  just  referred  to,  none  of  which,  how- 
ever, is  to  be  avoided  as  dialectical  by  persons  already 
using  them.  For  persons  not  using  them  I  can,  on  the 
other  hand,  see  no  reason  for  striving  to  acquire  them. 
It  should  be  found  a  valuable  exercise  to  have  students 
recast  into  colloquial  form  Swedish  of  a  more  literary  style 
of  composition.  In  dealing  with  matters  stylistic  I  have 
practically  ignored  archaic,  poetical  and  dialectical  details. 
One  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact,  then,  that  the 
Swedish-American  has  no  little  difficulty  in  distinguish- 
ing between  spoken  and  written  Swedish.  In  speaking 
Swedish  he  has,  however,  two  further  difficulties:  (i)  In 
most  cases  his  parents  while  in  Sweden  used  a  form  of 
Swedish  that  was  rather  dialectical,  and  the  Swedish- 


vn 

American  is  therefore  likely  to  reveal  dialectical  traits  to 
an  extent  to  which  persons  in  Sweden  who  are  in  simi- 
lar circumstances  to  those  that  he  is  now  in  would  not 
do  it.  But  there  are  (I  state  this  emphatically)  not  a 
few  localisms  —  usages  covering  a  large  or  important 
area  —  which  are  entirely  permissible,  and  in  no  way 
objectionable.  Most  cultured  Swedes  speak  a  form  of 
Swedish  that  is  colored  and  enriched  with  such  local- 
isms, and  which  usually  reveals  the  locality  from  which 
they  come.  (2)  American  Swedes  have  allowed  the 
language  of  this  country  to  influence  their  Swedish  in 
three  leading  directions:  (a)  pronunciation,  in  that  they 
to  a  large  extent  substitute  American-English  sounds  for 
the  corresponding  Swedish  ones,  and  tend  to  use  the  acute 
accent  in  all  words;  (b)  vocabulary,  in  that  they  to  a 
large  extent  substitute  American-English  words  for 
Swedish  words;  (c)  idiom,  in  that  they  transfer  or  trans- 
late American-English  idioms  directly  into  Swedish.  In 
Sweden  such  speech  must  clearly  be  avoided.  For  a 
bibliography  on  this  subject,  see  Appendix  V. 

The  following  friends  I  herewith  thank  heartily  for 
their  kindness  in  reading  the  proofs  and  offering  many 
valuable  suggestions:  Professor  Adolf  Noreen  and  Decent 
Olof  Ostergren  of  the  University  of  Upsala,  Professor 
Jules  Mauritzson  of  Augustana  College,  Professor  George 
T.  Flom  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  Dr.  Lee  M.  Hol- 
lander of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Professor  Louis 
Baker  of  Lawrence  College,  President  David  Nyvall  of 
North  Park  College,  Professor  Gustav  A.  Peterson  of 
Bethany  College,  Professor  Albert  E.  Egge  of  the  State 
College  of  Washington,  Professor  Joseph  Alexis  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska,  Mr.  Carl  O.  Sundstrom  of  the 
Lake  View  High  School,  Chicago,  Mr.  E.  W.  Olson  of 


VIII 

Rock  Island,  111.,  and  my  colleagues  Professor  James  Taft 
Hatfield,  Dr.  F.  A.  Bernstorff,  Dr.  George  V.  McCauley 
and  Dr.  Ronald  S.  Crane.  Valuable  suggestions  have 
also  come  from  Mr.  John  T.  Halhvachs  and  Miss  Edith 
A.  Mohney,  with  whom  I  have  had  the  pleasure  of  using 
the  proofs  in  class- work.  To  my  colleagues  Professors 
George  O.  Cur  me  and  W.  F.  Bryan  I  am  grateful  for 
their  readiness  to  discuss  with  me  at  all  times  matters 
of  general  grammar  and  English  grammar.  I  am  under 
obligations  to  Albert  Bonniers  Forlag  of  Stockholm  for 
their  good  will  in  connection  with  my  reprinting  selec- 
tions from  Swedish  literature  published  by  them. 

A.  LOUIS  ELMQUIST 
Evanston,  Illinois, 
January,   1914. 


CONTENTS. 

Note.  —  Besides  the  usual  vocabularies  and  exercises,  each  lesson 
contains,  in  addition  to  the  contents  as  given  below,  a  discussion 
of  ORTHOGRAPHY,  PRONUNCIATION,  ACCENT  (acute  and 
grave),  and  COLLOQUIALISMS,  based  on  the  material  contained 
in  each  lesson. 

PAGE 

PRONUNCIATION I 

Alphabet. 

Stress. 

Accent. 

Quantity. 

Sounds. 

SYLLABICATION 12 

CAPITALIZATION 12 

PUNCTUATION 13 

CONSPECTUS  OF  CONTENTS  OF  LESSONS 14 

LESSON 

I.  Gender 15 

Singular  of  adjectives  (also  denna,  delta). 

Indefinite  article  (also  min,  din,  er). 

Present  indicative  singular  of  hava,  vara. 

Uses  of  personal  pronouns  du,  ni,  han,  Aon,  den,  del. 

II.  Definite  article  (postpositive) 22 

Present  indicative. 

Possessive  pronouns  vdr,  er. 

Use  of  personal  pronouns  /  and  ni. 

III.  Declension 28 

Genitive. 

First  Declension. 

Plural  of  adjectives  and  possessive  pronouns  (also  dessa). 

Genitives  of  personal  pronouns  of  the  third  person. 

IV.  Second  Declension 34 

Past  tense  of  hava,  vara. 

IX 


V.  The  adjective,  definite  form 40 

Prepositive  definite  article. 

Past  tense  of  weak  and  strong  verbs. 

VI.  Third   Declension 46 

VII.  Fourth  Declension 53 

Strong  verbs,  past  tense;  principal  systems. 
Negatives. 

VIII.  Fifth  Declension 6c> 

Irregularities  in  declension. 
Foreign  forms. 

IX.  Syntax  of  the  noun   (genitive,  indefinite  article,  defi- 
nite form ) 70 

X.  Future  time 81 

Order  of  words. 

XI.  Adjectives 91 

XII.  Comparison  of  adjectives loo 

XIII.  Adverbs 108 

Comparison  of  adverbs. 

XIV.  The  verb 117 

First  Weak  Conjugation. 

Personal  Pronouns. 

Reflexive  pronouns  (personal  and  possessive). 

XV.  Second  Weak  Conjugation 1 28 

Third  Weak  Conjugation. 

XVI.  Strong  Conjugation 1 38 

XVII.  Subjunctive 148 

XVIII.  Passive 158 

Deponents. 

XIX.  Compound  verbs 1 70 

Reflexive  verbs. 
Impersonal  verbs. 

XX.  Participles iSo 

Infinitives. 
Imperative. 

Syntactical  remarks  (past  for  present;  progressive). 
XXI.  Auxiliaries 192 


XI 

XXII.  Personal  pronouns 202 

Possessive  pronouns. 
Demonstrative  pronouns. 

XXIII.  Relative  pronouns 214 

Interrogative  pronouns. 

XXIV.  Indefinite  pronouns 227 

XXV.  Numerals 239 

APPENDIX 

I.  Distribution  of  various  types  of   nouns  in  the  different 

declensions 248 

II.  The  postpositive  article 249 

III.  Use  of  -e  as  an  ending.     Male  sex 252 

IV.  List  of  strong  and  irregular  verbs '. . . .  253 

V.  Bibliography 263 

VOCABULARIES    (Swedish-English,    English-Swedish) 270 

INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 299 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 309 

NOTES  AND  CORRECTIONS 322 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Note.  —  For  a  more  complete  account  of  Swedish  pronunciation 
the  student  is  referred  to  the  author's  Phonology  (see  the  an- 
nouncement in  the  preface  of  this  book);  reference  is  frequently 
made  to  this  work  in  the  grammar. 

THE  ALPHABET. 

1.  The  Swedish  alphabet  is  the  same  as    the   English, 
with  the  addition  of  the  three  vowel-characters    a,    a,    b 
(capitals,  A,  A,   0)  after  z.     In  Swedish,  y  is  used  only 
as  a  vowel.     Q   and    w  occur    only    in    proper  names;  z, 
only  in  proper  names  and  in  a  few  words  of  foreign  origin. 
For  the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  see  §  20. 

STRESS. 

2.  The    first    syllable    has    the   main  stress,    with    the 
following  principal  exceptions: 

(1)  Very    many    words   of    foreign    origin;     as,    april' 
April,  tea'ter  theater. 

(2)  Words   with    the    prefixes    be-,   ge-    and   (usually) 
for-,    which    are    stressed    on    the   syllable    following   the 

prefix;  as,    berafta  relate,    geva'r    weapon,    fbrsb'ka   try. 

(3)  Verbs  ending  in  -era  and  nouns  ending   in    -inna, 
-essa-  stress  the  first  syllable  of  these  endings;  as,  stude'ra 
study,    Idraririna    (woman)    teacher,   prinses'sa   princess. 

(4)  Nouns  ending  in  -eri  stress    the   last    syllable;    as, 
bagerf  bakery. 


2  ACCENT 

(5)  Some  adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables  ending 
in  -lig,  and    many    ending    in    -tsk,    stress    the   syllable 
immediately  preceding;  as,  egen'tlig  real,  poli'tisk  political, 
mora'lisk  moral. 

(6)  Many  native  compounds  stress  some  syllable  other 
than  the  first;  as,  densam'ma  the  same,  kanhari da  perhaps, 
varan 'dra  each  other,  any'o  anew,  farra'l  farewell,  tillba'- 
ka  back,  atmin' stone   at    least,    omin' tetgbra    defeat,    frus- 
trate,  Gbtebor'g  Gothenburg,  Karlskro'na. 

Note.  —  In  this  grammar  the  position  of  the  stress  is  in- 
dicated whenever  it  rests  on  some  syllable  other  than  the  first; 
the  stress-mark  is  placed  after  the  long  sound  (  see  §  7). 

ACCENT. 

3.  Accent  is  a  combination  of  various  phases  of  stress 
and    tone.     In    pronouncing    an    English    word    of    two 
syllables,    let    us    say     "houses",    the    second    syllable, 
besides  having  much  weaker  stress,  has  either  lower    or 
higher  tone  than  the    first.     Similarly,    during    the   pro- 
nunciation of    a    monosyllabic    word,    as    "house",    the 
voice  either  sinks  or  rises.     Swedish   words  accented    as 
in  English  are  said  to  have  the  acute  accent.     But  Swedish 
has    another    very    different    kind    of    accent    called    the 
grave  accent. 

4.  Swedish  employs  three  different  tones:  high,  middle, 
low.     Dissyllabic    words   having   the   acute    accent    have 
high  tone  on    the    first   syllable,    and    low   tone    on    the 
second;  the  second  syllable  has  the  weakest  stress  possible. 
Dissyllabic  words   having   the   grave    accent   begin   with 
the  middle  tone  and  sink  to  the   low   tone   on    the  first 
syllable,  rising  to  the  high  tone  on  the  second    syllable; 
the    second    syllable    has    a    degree    of  stress  noticeably 
stronger  than  that  of  the  corresponding  syllable  of  words 
with  the  acute  accent. 


ACCENT  3 

Trisyllables  with  the  acute  accent  have  high  tone  on  the 
first  syllable,  and  low  tone  on  each  of  the  other  two; 
trisyllables  with  the  grave  accent  have  middle  tone  on  the 
first  syllable,  low  tone  on  the  second,  and  high  tone  on 
the  third.  Trisyllables,  whether  they  have  the  acute 
or  the  grave  accent,  have  on  the  second  syllable  the 
weakest  stress  possible,  and  on  the  third  syllable  a 
degree  of  stress  noticeably  stronger. 

Words  not  stressed  on  the  first  syllable  have  accentual 
conditions  identical  with  those  described,  beginning  with 
the  syllable  that  has  the  main  stress.  All  syllables  pre- 
ceding the  main  stress  have  low  tone,  -whether  the  rest 
of  the  word  has  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent;  if  there 
is  only  one  syllable  preceding,  it  has  the  weakest  stress 
possible;  if  there  are  two,  the  syllable  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  main  stress  has  the  weakest  stress  possible, 
while  the  first  syllable  has  a  degree  of  stress  noticeably 
stronger. 

5.  Swedish  employs  the  acute  accent  in  monosyllables 
(as  stol  chair,  sjon  the  lake),  and  the  grave  accent  in 
words  and  forms  of  two  or  more  syllables  (as  stolar 
chairs,  tala  speak,  talade  spoke).  However,  by  excep- 
tion, the  acute  accent  is  used  also  in  a  number  of  words 
and  forms  of  two  or  more  syllables;  namely, 

(1)  Most  words  of  foreign  origin,  whether  stressed  on 
the    first    syllable    or    on    some    other;    also  many  native 
words  not  stressed  on  the  first  syllable.     Examples:  juni 
June,  genus  gender,   koffert  trunk,  tea'ter  theater,  berdfta 
relate,    stude'ra   study,    egen'tlig    real,    poli'tisk    political, 
tillba'ka  back. 

(2)  Most  words  ending  in  -el,  -en,  -er;  as,  Aker    field, 
f&gel    bird,     vatten   water,    vacker   pretty,    simpel  simple, 
over  over,  eller  or. 


4  QUANTITY 

(3)  The  following  inflectional  forms:  (a)  The  pres. 
sing.  ind.  act.  ending  in  -er;  as,  kbper  buys,  (b)  Plurals 
of  the  Third  Declension  that  have  modified  or  shortened 
the  vowel;  as,  hdnder,  plur.  of  hand  hand;  getter,  plur.  of 
get  goat,  (c)  Most  comparatives  ending  in  -re;  as, 
hogre  higher,  (d)  The  definite  form  of  all  nouns  and 
forms  of  nouns  having  the  acute  accent;  as,  stolen,  def. 
of  stol  (acute  accent);  hdnderna,  clef,  of  hander  (acute) 
hands;  kofferten,  def.  of  koffert  (acute)  trunk. 

QUANTITY. 

6.  Stressed  vowels  are  long  if  final  or    if    followed   by 
only  one  consonant,  but  short  if  followed  by  more    than 
one    consonant.     All    unstressed  vowels  are  short.     Ex.: 
(Long)    se    see,    tal    speech,    tala    (first    vowel)    speak. 
(Short)  tall  pine,  fast  firm,  falsk  false,  tallar  pines,    tala, 
(second  vowel)  speak,  gosse  boy. 

Note.  —  I.  All  vowels  followed  by  a  single  j  or  x  are  short^ 
and  very  often  vowels  followed  by  final  m  or  n;  i  is  short  in  the 
endings  -ikel,  -ipel,  -itel;  moreover,  in  a  few  individual  words  the 
vowel  is  short,  though  followed  by  only  one  consonant.  Ex.:  nej 
(usually  a  dipthong;  cf.  §  12)  no,  sex  six,  hem  home,  han  he,  ar- 
tik'el  article,  kapit'el  chapter,  lite  I  title,  april'  April,  dotna  judge, 
frukost  breakfast,  hade  (a  usually  short)  had. 

2.  Vowels  followed  by  rd,  rl,  rn  and  (in  a  few  cases)  by  rt 
are  long;  for  examples  see  §  13,  3.  In  cases  like  brunt,  n.  of  brun 
brown,  vags,  gen.  of  vag  road,  and  lekte,  past  tense  of  leka  play, 
where  the  second  consonant  belongs  to  an  inflectional  ending 
added  to  a  word  with  a  long  vowel,  the  vowel  remains  long,  unless 
the  addition  of  the  ending  results  in  a  double  consonant  (as  vii 
white,  n.  vitt;  mota  meet,  past  tense  motte;  leda  lead,  past  tense 
ledde}. 

7.  In  Swedish,  consonants,  like  vowels,  may    be   long 
or  short.     The  long  consonant-sound  is  particularly  notice- 
able when  occurring  between  two  vowels;    as,  falla   fall, 
mamma  mamma,  hattar  hats. 


VOWELS  5 

All  consonants  not  following  immediately  upon  the 
stressed  vowel  are  short.  The  consonant  (if  there  is 
one)  following  immediately  upon  the  stressed  vowel  is 
long  if  the  vowel  is  short,  but  short  if  the  vowel  is  long. 

VOWELS. 

Note.  —  Long  vowels  in  Swedish  do  not  have  the  vanish  so 
common  in  English.  Moreover,  vowels  retain  their  natural  sound 
before  r. 

8.  The  vowels  a,  u,  a,  o  have  a  different  quality  of 
sound  when  long  and  when  short. 

(1)  a.     Long   a    has   a    sound    between    that    of    the 
stressed  vowels  in  "father"   and  "saw".  Ex.:  av  of,  off, 
hat  hate,  bra  well,  tala  (first  a)  speak. 

Short  a  =  the  first  "a"  in  "aha".  Ex.:  aft'  that, 
hatt  hat,  tala  (second  «)  speak,  tacka  thank. 

Note.  —  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  pronounce  clearly  un- 
stressed a,  which  is  very  common  in  endings. 

(2)  u.     Long  u    has    no    English  equivalent.     Placing 
the   tongue    in    position    for    the    beginning    of    "a"    in 
"ate",  round  the  lips  (without  protrusion)  so  that  they 
are  almost  closed.     Ex.:    ut   out,    hus  house. 

Short  ic  almost  =  the  final  vowel  in  "value",  minus 
the  y-sound.  Ex.:  kung  king,  honung  honey. 

Note. — Swedish  u  never  begins  with  the  sound  of  Eng.  con- 
sonantal "y",  as  in  English  "use",  "unite";  as,  universite't  uni- 
versity, musi'k  music,  tnuse'utn  museum. 

(3)  a.     Long  a  almost  =  the    beginning    of    "o"     in 
"rope".     Ex.:  ga  go,  bat  boat. 

Short  a  =  "o"  in    "obey".      Ex.:  l&ng  long,  gatt  gone. 

(4)  6.     Long  o  =  "6"  in  German     "bose".     Placing 
the    tongue    in    position    for  Swedish  e  (see    §  9,   i  a), 
round  the  lips  as  for  "o"   in  "rope".     Ex.:    do    die,    sot 
sweet,  bga  eye. 


6  VOWELS 

Short  b  =  "6"  in  German  "Cotter".  Placing  the 
tongue  in  position  for  Swedish  a  (see  §  9,  5),  round 
the  lips  as  for  "oo"  in  "book".  Ex.:  dbtt  died,  soft 
(n.)  sweet,  bppen  open. 

9.  The  vowels  e,  i,  o  (when  not  =  a),  y,  a  have  the 
same  quality  of  sound  when  long  as  when  short.  O  is 
used  also  to  represent  the  ^-sound;  e,  also  to  represent 
the  a-sound. 

(1)  e.     a)     E  has  a  sound  between  that  of  the  vowels 
of    "hit"  and  of  "hate".  Ex.:  het  hot,  se  see;  hett   (n.) 
hot,  sett  seen,  begri'pa  understand. 

b)  Unstressed  (short)  e  in  endings  =  "e"   in  German 
"Gabe".     Ex.:   gosse  boy,    vatten    water,    vacker    pretty, 

f&gel  bird,  fames  is  found. 

c)  Short  e  very  often,    long   e  rarely,    has   the    sound 
of  a  (see  §  9,  5).     Ex.:    denna   this,    eller  or,    sex   six, 
septem'ber  (the  first    two  ^'s)    September;    med  with,    det 
that,   erfara  experience. 

(2)  i.     /  =  "i"     in     "police".    Ex.:  i  in,  livlite,  fri 
free;  sitta  sit,  fritt  (n.)  free,  in  in,  juli  July. 

(3)  o.     a)     O   almost  =  "oo"   in   "shoot".    Ex.:  god 
good,    bo  live;  bodde  lived,  hon  she. 

b)  Short  o  very  often,  long  o  frequently,  =  d.  Ex.: 
ofta  often,  gott  (n.)  good,  doktor  doctor;  son  son,  sova 
sleep,  katalo'g  catalog. 

(4)  y.     This  almost  =  "ii"  in  German  "iiber",  but  is 
closer  to  Swedish  i.     Placing  the  tongue  in  position  for  '  'ee' ' 
in  "see",  round  the  lips  as  for  "oo"  in  "book".     Ex.:  sy 
sew,    ny   new,  frysa   freeze;    nytt    (n.)    new,    lyfta    lift, 
syster  sister. 

(5)  a.     This   almost  =  "ai"  in    "air".    Ex.:     ar   is, 
lasa  read,  rat  straight;   satta  put,   ratt  (n.)  straight. 


DIPHTHONGS,    CONSONANTS  7 

10.  HARD  AND  SOFT  VOWELS.    The  vowels  are  divided 
into:   (a)  hard  vowels:  a,  o,  u,  a;  (b)  soft  vowels:  e,  i,y,  a,  b. 

11.  VOWEL-MODIFICATION.     In  a  number  of  instances 
we  find  related  forms  having    in    one   case    hard  vowels, 
in    the    other    soft    vowels;    this    change    from  hard    to 
soft  vowels  is  known  as  vowel-modification  (or  mutation). 
Compare  Eug.  man,   men;  mouse,  mice. 

In  Swedish,  a  and  a,  when  modified,  become  a;  o  be- 
comes b;  21  becomes  y.  Such  an  interchange  of  hard  and 
soft  vowels  occurs:  (a)  between  the  singular  and  the 
plural  of  some  nouns;  as  man  man,  plur.  man;  gas 
goose,  plur.  gass;  bok  book,  plur.  backer;  (b)  between 
the  positive  and  the  comparative  and  superlative  in  a 
few  adjectives;  as,  stor  large,  stbrre,  stbrst;  ung  young, 
yngre,  yngst;  (c)  between  the  past  tense  and  the  in- 
finitive of  a  few  verbs;  as,  valde,  past  tense  of  valja 
choose;  salde,  past  tense  of  salja  sell. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

12.  Swedish  has  few  diphthongs,  and  these  primarily  in 
words  of  foreign  origin.     Ex.:     nej  (pron.  ndj")  no,  maj 
May,    pojke    boy,    hbjd    height,    augus'ti    (=    "ou"    in 
''house")    August,    reumatis'm    (in    this    word   eu  =  0j") 
rheumatism. 

CONSONANTS. 

13.  The  following  consonants  differ  in  sound  from  the 
corresponding  English  sounds: 

(1)  Swedish  r  is  very  unlike  our  usual  American  "r"; 
it    is    trilled,    resembling    "r"     in    "three".     Ex.:  fara 
go,  er  your,  fbrr  before. 

(2)  The    dentals    (dt    t,    /,    «,    j)    are   made    a    little 
farther  forward  toward  the  teeth  than   in   English,    and 


8  CONSONANTS 

usually  with  the  blade  of  the  tongue;  in  the  case  of  /, 
moreover,  the  tongue  is  not  hollowed.  Ex.:  du  you, 
tala  speak,  dal  valley,  mi  now,  sa  so. 

(3)  The  combinations  rd,  rt,  rl,  rn,  rs  represent  simply 
another  kind  of  d,  t,  /,  n,  s,  made  with  the   tip   of   the 
tongue,    farther    back    than  Eng.    d,    t,    1,  n,  s;  no  r  is 
heard,  except,  frequently,  in  the  case  of  rl.     These  sounds 
are  called  supradentals,  because  they  are  made  "above" 
(farther  back  than)   the  dentals.     Ex.:  hard  hard,  hjdrta 
heart,  harlig  glorious,  barn  child,  vers  verse. 

(4)  The  Swedish  sound  corresponding    to    Eng.    "sh" 
differs  from  this;  there  is  a  narrowing  between  the  tongue 
and  the  roof  of  the  mouth  at  two  places,  combining  the 
tongue-positions  of  Swedish  supradental  s  and  of  a  spirant 
lying  between  "ch"  in  German  "Nachte"  and  in  "ich". 
It  is  normally,    but   not   usually,    written    sj.     Ex.:    sju 
seven,  sjal  soul,  skilja  (here   sk  =  sj)    separate,    stjarna 
(stj  =  sj)    star,  musta'sch  (sc/i  =  sj)    mustache,   pensio'n 
(si  —  sj,-  pron.  pangsjo'n*)  pension,  missio'n  (ssi  =  sj)  mis- 
sion, passage'rare  (here  g  =  sj)  passenger,  lektio'n  (here 
ti  =  sj)  lesson. 

14.  G,  k  and  sk,  when  followed  by  a  stressed  soft 
vowel  or  by  an  unstressed  soft  vowel  preceding  the 
main  stress,  have  the  sounds  of  Swedish  j  (=  Eng.  con- 
sonantal "y"),  tj  (=  Eng.  "ch")  and  sj,  respectively. 
Ex.:  gbra  do,  giva  give;  gick,  past  sing,  of  ga  go;  kbpa- 
buy,  kar  dear;  ske  happen,  skynda  hurry;  gcncra'l  general, 
kemi'  chemistry. 

G,  k,  sk  otherwise  have  the  sounds  of  Eng.  "g"  (as  in 
"g°")>  "k",  "sk",  respectively;  but-see  further  details  in 
§  19,  2  in  the  case  of  g.  Ex.:  ga  go;  gav,  past  tense 
of  giva  give;  glas  glass,  taga  take,  eg  en  own,  dag  day; 
ko  cow,  krypa  creep,  rbka  smoke,  vaken  awake,  tak 


CONSONANTS  9 

roof;  skall  shall,  skriva  write,  vdska  bag,  fiskcn  the  fish, 
Ask  fish. 

Note.  —  Observe  manniska  human  being,  and  kanske  perhaps, 
in  which  sk  =  sj. 

15.  Gjt   kj,   skj,    which    are    always  followed   by    hard 
vowels,  =  Swedish  y,  tj,  sj,    respectively.     Ex.:    gjorde, 
past  tense  of  gbra  do;  kjortel  skirt;  skjuta  shoot. 

16.  Initial  d,  h,  /,   g  are   silent    when   followed    by  j. 
Ex.:     djur  animal,  hjdrta  heart,    ljus   light;  gjorde,    past 
tense  of  gbra  do 

Otherwise  silent  consonants  occur  chiefly  in  the  fol- 
lowing cases:  (a)  /  is  silent  in  vdrld  world,  karl  man 
(but  not  in  the  proper  name  Karl,  where,  on  the  con- 
trary, r  is  very  often  silent);  (b)  g  in  morgnar,  plur.  of 
inorgon  morning;  (c)  d  in  aldst  oldest,  handske  glove, 
iriidgard  garden;  (d)  n  usually  when  preceded  by  m  or 
the  sound  of  ng  (written  g  in  this  case)  and  followed 
by  d,  t,  s;  as,  lugnt  (pron.  lungt,  not  lungnf),  n.  of 
lugn  calm;  hdmnd  revenge;  vagnshjul  (pron.  vangs-,  not 
•vangns-*)  wagon-wheel. 

17.  Initial  g  and  k  are  not  silent  before  n;  as,    gnaga 
gnaw,  kna  knee. 

18-  Swedish  b,  d,  g,  v,  when  followed  by  t  or  s,  are 
usually  pronounced  p,  t,  k,  f,  respectively,  except  in  the 
genitive  singular  and  the  passive  singular  when  a  long 
vowel  precedes  (as  vags,.  fogs}.  Ex.:  absolu't  absolute, 
Jialvvags1  half-way,  byggs  is  built,  Cuds1  God's,  tids1  nog 
time  enough,  grovt  coarse.  Note  particularly  the  follow- 
ing: lagt  and  sagP,  supines  of  Idgga  lay,  saga  (usually 
pron.  soya)  say;  bragte,  bragt,  past  tense  and  supine  of 
bringa  bring;  hbgfi,^hogsfi,  neuter  and  superlative  of  hog 
high. 


10  CONSONANTS 

19.   ADDITIONAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  CONSONANTS: 

(1)  c.  a)  Swedish  double  k  is  written  ck;  as,  icke  not, 
ock   also.     But   in    one   word,    och    and,  it  is  written  ch. 

b)  Aside   from   this  use,    c   occurs    only   in    words  of 
foreign  origin:      i)  =  Swedish  s,  when  followed  by    the 
soft    vowels    e,    z,    y;    as,    centra' I  central,    cirka   about, 
cykel    cycle;     2)  =  k,    when    followed   by   c  (=  s)\    as, 
accen't  (pron.  aksen'f)  accent. 

c)  Ch  =    Swedish  sj;    it     occurs    only    in     words     of 
foreign  origin;   as,  chokla'd  chocolate.     Cf.  also  a,  above. 

(2)  g.  a)     G    =    Swedish  j:     i)    before  stressed  soft 
vowels   and   unstressed  soft   vowels   preceding   the    main 
stress  (for  examples  see  §  14);     2)  usually  after  /  and  r; 
as,  berg  mountain,    Sver(i)ge  (i  always   silent)    Sweden, 
talg  tallow. 

b)  G  =  Swedish  sjt   when    followed    by   e   or   /  in    a 
number  of  words  of  foreign  origin;  as,  passage' rare    pas- 
senger, gent'  genius. 

c)  G  usually  =  Swedish  ng  (see  §  19,  5  b)  when  fol- 
lowed by  n;  as,  vagn  (pron.  vttftgn)  wagon,  regna  to  rain. 

d)  G  is  silent  before/  (see  §§  15;   16);  also   in    morg- 
nar  (see  §  16  b). 

e)  Otherwise   g    has    the    sound    of     "g"     in      "go'* 
(for  examples  see  §  14). 

(3)  j.   y  nas  the  sound   of    English   consonantal  "y"; 
as,  jag  I,  skilja  separate. 

(4)  k.  Double  k  is  written  ck;  see  §  19,   i  a. 

(5)  n.  a)    N  =  Swedish   ng    (see    below):     i)    before 
k,  as  in  English;  as,  tanka  think;     2)  often  before  other 
consonants  (except  n)  in  words  of  foreign  origin;    en  = 
ang;  as,  annon's  (pron.  anong's)    advertisement,  pensio'n 
(pron.  pangsjo'n)  pension. 


CONSONANTS  1 1 

b)  Ng  =  Eng.  "ng"  in  "singer"  (not  "ngg",  as  in 
"finger");  as,  sjunga  sing,  finger  finger. 

(6)  s.  a)   Swedish  s  never  has  the  sound   of    "z",    as 
in  Eng.  "roses". 

b)  Stj,  sch,  si,  ssi  have  the  sound  of  Swedish  sj 
(for  examples  see  §  13,  4). 

(7)  t.  a)    Tj  =  "ch"  in    "church";   as,    tjdna   serve, 
tjugu  twenty. 

b)  Ti:  i)  =  sj,  when  followed  by  o  and  preceded 
by  a  consonant  (except  r);  as,  lektio'n  lesson,  subskriptio'n 
subscription;  2)  =  t-{-sj,  when  followed  by  o  and  pre- 
ceded by  a  vowel  or  r;  as,  static 'n  station,  portio'n  por- 
tion; 3)  = /+ s-\- z.  sometimes  s-\- i,  when  followed  by  a 
or  e;  as,  initiati'v  initiative,  patien't  (pron.  pasien'f) 
patient,  aktie  (usually  pron.  aksie)  share. 

(8)  w.  W  has  the  sound  of  v;  as,    Walli'n. 

(9)  x.    X  never  has  the  sound  of  "gz",  as  Eng.   "x" 
often    does    when    it    precedes    the    stressed    vowel;    as, 
exa'men  (x  =  ks~]  examination  ("x"  here  =  "gz"). 

(10)  z.  Zhas  the  sound  of  Swedish  s;   as,    zink   zinc, 
zon  zone. 

20-  THE  NAMES  OF  THE  LETTERS  OF  THE  ALPHABET 
are:  a,  be,  se,  de,  e,  dff,  ge,  hd,  i,  ji,  kd,  all,  dmm,  dnn, 
o,  pe,  ku,  drr,  ass,  te,  u,  ve,  ve  (=  w),  dks,  y,  sdta,  d, 
d,  b. 

The  sound  represented  by  sj  is  called  sje-ljudet;  tj, 
tje-ljridet;  ng,  dng-ljudet. 

The  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  as  here  given 
are  pronounced  like  regular  Swedish  words,  except  that 
g  in  ge  usually  has  the  sound  of  "g"  in  "go";  e  and  o 
have  here  their  normal  quality  (not  =  d,  d~);  the  final 
(stressed)  vowels  are  long. 


12  SYLLABICATION,   CAPITALIZATION 

SYLLABICATION. 

21.  Compounds  are  divided  into  their  component  parts. 
Ex.:    miss-tag   mistake,    er-halla   receive,    be-rdt'ta  relate, 
bak-om  behind,  hand-skrift  manuscript. 

22.  In  simple  words:  (a)  after  the  vowel    having    the 
main  stress,  a  consonant    standing   between   two   vowels, 
or,  if  there  is  more  than  one,    the   last   consonant    of   a 
consonant- group  standing  between  two  vowels,  goes  with 
the  following  vowel;  as,  ta-la-re  speaker,  ic-ke  not,  svens- 
kar  Swedes,  stbr-re   larger,    hbgs-te   highest,    nytt-ja    use; 
(b)  before  the  vowel    having    the   main    stress,    so    many 
consonants  as  are  capable  of   standing   at    the   beginning 
of   a   Swedish    word,    go   with   the    following    vowel;  as, 
a-dres's  address  in-du-stri'  industry. 

Note.  —  Sj,  sch  and  sk  (representing  the  j/'-sound)  are  not 
divided;  as,  tnanni-ska  human  being,  vys-sja  lull,  galo-sch'er  rubbers. 
—  Ng  (when  representing  a  single  sound)  is  usually  not  divided, 
but  goes  with  the  preceding  vowel;  as,  mdng-a  many.  —  X  usually 
goes  with  the  preceding  vowel;  as,  l&x-a  lesson. 

CAPITALIZATION. 

23.  The  pronoun  /    you,    is    always    written    with    a 
capital  letter;  sometimes  also  ni,  obj.  e(de~)r,    j-ou,    poss. 
e(de)r  your,  in  letters  as  a  sign  of  respect;  more  rarely, 
du,  obj.  dig,  you,  poss.  din  your. 

24.  Otherwise  capitals   are   employed    less    in    Swedish 
than  in  English.     A  small  initial  letter  is  employed   in: 

(1)  titles  (except  when  used  in  direct  address);  as,  herr 
Andersson    Mr.     Anderson,    profes'sor    Lundel'l  Professor 
Lundell. 

(2)  words  derived  from  proper  names,  both  adjectives 
and  nouns;  as,     amerika'n     (an)     American,     amerika'^isk 
American,   hitera'n  (a)  Lutheran,  lutersk  Lutheran,  stock- 
holmare  inhabitant  of  Stockholm. 


PUNCTUATION  13 

(3)  names   of  days    (including  holidays)  and    months; 
as,  sbndag  Sunday,  jul  Christmas,  april'  April. 

(4)  in  all  but   the    first    word    in  proper  group-names, 
unless  the  posterior  words  in  question  are  proper    names 
in  themselves;  as,  Forenta  sta'terna  (secondary   stress   on 
the  second  syllable  of  forenta)    The   United   States,    At- 
lan'tiska  ocea'nen  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  Svenska  akademi'en 
the  Swedish  Academy,  Karl  den  sto're  Charles  the  Great. 

PUNCTUATION. 

25.  After  an  abbreviation  containing  the   last  letter  of 
the  word   for  which  it  is  an    abbreviation,    no    period   is 
used;     as,     hr     (=    herr)  Mr.;    dr  (=  doktor)     Dr.;  jfr 
(=  jamfor)  cf . ;  d:o  (=  dito)   ditto. 

26.  The  semicolon  is  employed  less   than    in   English, 
the  exclamation  point  more. 

27-  The  comma  is  employed  more  than  in  English. 
It  is  generally  used  between  clauses  of  all  kinds  that 
contain  both  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  Ex.:  Kom,  om 
du  kan.  Come  if  you  can.  Han  fick,  vad  han  behbvde. 
He  got  what  he  needed.  Jag  vet,  att  du  kan  gbra  det, 
om  du  rill.  I  know  that  you  can  do  it  if  you  want  to. 
ftokcn,  sow  du  kbpte,  kostade  tva  kronor.  The  book  that 
3Tou  bought  cost  two  crowns. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  CONTENTS  OF 
THE  LESSONS. 

The  following  summary  of  contents  shows  at  a  glance  the 
arrangement  of  topics  in  the  lessons;  those  desiring  to  study  the  gram- 
mar by  topics  rather  than  by  lessons  will  find  in  the  column  to 
the  right  references  to  all  the  earlier  discussions  of  the  topics 
standing  opposite.  Lesson  V,  containing  only  material  treated 
more  fully  in  later  lessons,  is  omitted  in  the  column  to  the  left. 


LESSON  TOPICS 

I.Ni  GENDER,  ARTICLES  (ex- 
II. /     cept  prepositive). 

m.1 

IV.    NOUN:  declension;  genitive; 
VI.  I      1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5  declension; 
VII.  I      irregular     nouns;     foreign 
VIII.        forms;  syntax. 
IX.J 

X.     ORDER  OF  WORDS. 
XI.^  ADJECTIVES,  ADVERBS; 
XII.  i>    comparison    of    adjectives 
XIII.J      and  adverbs. 


XIV. 


VERBS:  1,    "2  and  3    Weak 


XV.        Conjugations;  Strong  Con- 

XVI.        jugation;  subjunctive;  pas- 

XVII.       sive;  deponents;  compound 

XVIII-       verbs;  reflexive  verbs;  im- 

XIX.        personal  verbs;  participles; 

XX.        infinitive;  imperative;  syn- 

XXI. J      tax;  auxiliaries. 

XXIL>,  PRONOUNS:  Personal,  pos- 

XXIII.  J>     sessive,  demonstrative,  rela- 

XXI V.J      tive,   interrog.,    indefinite. 

XXV.     NUMERALS. 


TREATED  EARLIER 
(V,  prepositive  article) 


(VII,  position  of  negatives) 

(I,  sing.,  indef.;  Ill,   plur., 

indef.;  V,  definite  adj.  and 

prepos.  art. ;  VII,  negatives) 

(I,  pres.  sing,  of  vara,  hava; 

II,  present  tense;  IV,  past 

of  vara,    hava;    V,    past 

tense;  VII,  past   tense   of 

strong  verbs,  systems;  X, 

future ) 


(I,  du,  ni,  han,  hon,  den,  del; 

II,  /,  ni;  III,  genitive;  XIV, 
objective  and  reflexive;  I, 
mm,  din,  er;  II,  vdr,  er; 

III,  plur.;  XIV,  reflexive; 
I,  denna,  deita;  III,  dessa) 


LESSON  I. 

GENDER. 

28.     The  Swedish  language  has  two  genders,  common 
and  neuter. 

(1)  Of  common  gender  are  names  of  living  beings  and 
most  names  of    inanimate    objects;    as,   gosse    boy,  flicka 
girl,  lampa  lamp,  stol  chair. 

(2)  Neuter  are  many  names  of  inanimate  objects;  as, 
hus  house,  bord  table. 

Note.  —  i.  A  few  names  of   living  beings  are  neuter,  by   excep- 
tion; as,  barn  child,  fruntimmer  woman,  far  sheep,  bi  bee. 

2.  Observe   that  while  in  English   the   names  of  inanimate  ob- 
jects are  regularly   neuter,  they  are  in  Swedish  partly  of   common 
and  partly  of  neuter  gender.     Note    also  that  "common",  as  used 
of  Swedish  in  this  book,  does  not  mean  that  a  word  may  be  either 
masculine  or  feminine  (as  in    English    "teacher",    "friend"),    but 
simply  that  it  is  not  neuter  (non-neuter  gender). 

3.  The    distinction    between    neuter    and    common  gender  has 
nothing  to  do  with  sex,  but  is  purely  grammatical;  articles  and  ad- 
jectives   have  a  different    form    in    the    singular    when    connected 
with     neuter    nouns    than    when    connected    with    common-gender 
nouns. 

4.  Words  of  common  gender  that  are  names    of     living    beings, 
are   in   most   grammars,  according  as    the   sex   is   male  or  female, 
said  to  be  of  masculine  or  of  feminine  gender,  or  they  are    called 
common-gender   masculines  and    common-gender    feminines.     This 
so-called  natural  gender   is,    however,    of    very    little    importance, 
except    as  regards    the  use    of  the   personal  pronouns  correspond- 
ing to  "he"  and  "she".     See  §  36. 


1 6  ADJECTIVE,  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE  I 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

29-  An  adjective  modifying  a  common-gender  noun  in 
the  singular  is  left  unchanged;  as,  brun  stol  brown  chair, 
denna  stol  ar  brun  this  chair  is  brown. 

An  adjective  modifying  a  neuter  noun  in  the  sin- 
gular adds  -//  as,  brunt  hus  brown  house,  detta  hus  ar 
bnmt1  this  house  is  brown. 

30.  Especially  in  the  case  of   the   articles   and    many 
pronouns  containing    n,  the  neuter  is  formed    by   substi- 
tuting /  for  n;  as,  denna,  n.  detta  this. 

THE  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

31.  The  indefinite  article  is: 

Common  gender  en^ 
Neuter  ett  J  &)  al 

Examples:  en  stol  a  chair,  en  vacker  lampa  a  beautiful 
lamp,  ett  hus  a  house,  ett  vackert  bord  a  beautiful. table. 

32.  Similarly,  possessive  pronouns  ending  in  n  substi- 
tute /  in  the  neuter: 

Common     min- 
Neuter        mitt 

Ex.:  min  stol  my  chair,  mitt  hus  my  house. 
Note.  —  Observe  that  Swedish  min    and   din,  er  represent  both 
"my"  and  "mine",  "your"  and  "yours",  respectively. 

33.  SUMMARY:    In    adjectives,    articles  and    pronouns 
t  is  the  sign  of  the  neuter  singular. 


z'«2l  dhP.  er  ~\ 

at  \  my>  mme  ditt,  ert\ 


1  In  Swedish,  as  in   Latin,     predicate    adjectives    as   well   as   attributive 
adjectives  are  inflected.     In  German,  predicate  adjectives  remain  uninflected. 

2  In  en,  min.  din  the  vowel  is    short   though   followed   by   only  one  con- 
sonant; see  §  6,  note  1,  and    Phonology  §  ISb    (concerning   Phonology   see 
the  note  preceding  §  1  in  this  book  I.      The  substitution  of  tt  for  «  in   ett.  ditt. 
mitt  is  therefore  only  orthographic,  since  the  common-gender  forms  are  pro- 
nounced as  though  written  enn.   ;«/'««.   dinn. 


I  VERBS,  PRONOUNS  I/ 

VERBS. 

34.  The  present  indicative  singular  of  the  verbs  vara- 
to  be,  and  hava  (frequently  shortened  to  ha)  to  have: 

jag  \       I  am  jag  I  have 

du,  ni  \ar  you  are        du,  ni       \har  you  have 

han1,  hon1,  den1,  det  J      he,  she,  it  is  han,  etc.J          he  has 

THE  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

35.  The  pronoun  Su  (and  the  corresponding  possess- 
ive din)  is  used  in  familiar  address2,  i.  e.,  in  speaking  to 
relatives,  friends3   and   children.     The    pronoun   ni   (and 
its  possessive  er)  is  formal.     Du  and  ni  are  both  translated 
"you"2;  so  din  and  er  are  rendered  by  "your",  "yours". 

36.  Han  he,  and  hon  she,  are  used  as  the  correspond- 
ing  pronouns  in  English.     Den   is    used  in    referring    to 
inanimate  objects  of  common  gender.     Det  is  used  in  re- 
ferring to  inanimate  objects  of  neuter  gender.     Both  den 
and  det  are  rendered  into  English  by  "it".     In  brief: 

I han  he  1 

_.  t-  animate 

Common  -j  kon  shej 

h 

37-  OBSERVE  THE  PRONUNCIATION  OF:  denna,  detta, 
den,  det  (§  9,  i  c);  hon  (§  9,  3  a);  bord,  barn,  stort  (n.),  erf 
("•)  (§  13.  3);><T  (§  T9>  3);  icke,  flicka,  Backer,  och  (§  19, 
i  a).  —  Notice  the  quantity  in  min,  din,  han,  hon,  den, 
en,  men-  (§  6,  note  i;  Phonology  §  18  b);  bord,  barn 
(§  6,  note  2);  brunt,  crt,  stort  (§  6,  note  2). 

1  The  vowel  in  han,  hon,  den  is  short;  see  §  37. 

2  In  poetry,  and  in  prose  in  the  elevated  style,  du  and  din  are  used  in 
addressing  any  person.     These  pronouns  are  also  employed  in  addressing 
the  Deity.     In  these  cases,  English  uses  the  corresponding  pronouns  "thou" 
and  "thine". 

3  Between  friends,  du  is  normallj'   used   only  after  a  definite  agreement 
to  use  it;  of.  §  39,  2  end. 


-      ,  inanimate 
Neuter        det 


1 8  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE 

38.  ACCENT:  (i)  Swedish  words  of  two  or  more  sylla- 
bles have  the  grave  accent  (see  §§  3;  4;  5);  as,  denna, 
delta,  flicka,  gosse,  hava,  vara,  litcn.  Some  words  of 
two  or  more  syllables,  however,  have  the  acute  accent. 
These  exceptions  are  indicated  in  the  following  lessons 
tinder  the  heading  of  ACCENT1.  The  distribution  of  the 
grave  and  the  acute  accent  in  the  various  grammatical 
categories,  as  presented  in  each  lesson,  is  also  consid- 
ered. 

(2)  Of  the  words  occurring  in  this  lesson,  vacker  has 
the  acute  accent. 

39-  PRINCIPAL  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  In  the  spoken 
language  denna  (n.  delta}  is  followed  by  the  noun  in  the 
definite  form  (see  §§  40;  41);  as,  denna  stolen >  delta  huset. 
In  place  of  denna  (n.  detla)  the  spoken  language  usual- 
ly, and  the  written  language  sometimes,  employs  den 
ha'r  (n.  det  ha'r),  which  is  also  followed  by  the  noun  in 
the  definite  form. 

(2)  In  the  written  language  ni  (and  the  corresponding 
possessive  er)  is  regularly  used  as  the  formal  pronoun 
of  address  in  the  singular.  In  the  spoken  language, 
however,  this  is  very  often  not  considered  quite  polite, 
particularly  in  addressing  superiors,  and  many  people  ob- 
ject to  its  use,  though  much  less  now  than  formerly. 
Instead  of  ni  the  spoken  language  generally,  and  the 
written  language  sometimes,  employs  the  title  of  the 
person  addressed,  with  or  without  the  name.  For  the 
possessive  er  the  genitive  (see  §  55)  of  the  title  or  of 
the  name  is  used.  When  the  name  does  not  follow,  the 
definite  form  (see  §§  40;  41)  of  the  title  is  used,  which 

1  Concerning  the  position  of  the  main  stress  in  Swedish,  see  §  2  and  note. 
The  question  of  stress  is  treated  in  notes  and  foot-notes,  whenever  comment 
is  necessary,  and  not  under  ACCENT. 


I  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE  19 

may  be  preceded  by  herr1  (Mr.)  or/;-/;1  (Mrs.).  When 
the  name  follows,  the  indefinite  form  is  used  in  the  case 
of  most  titles;  some,  however,  may  have  either  the  definite 
or  the  indefinite  form,  while  others  are  always  put  in  the 
definite  form.  Ex.:  Var  bor  herr  (=Mr.)  Andersson  nu? 
Where  do  you  live  now2?  \  ad  sagcr  profes'sorn^  (^pro- 
fessor) (or  herr  prof cs' sorn,  or  profcs' sorz  Ljungmark)  om 
saken  ?  What  do  you  say  about  the  matter  ?  Hur  gam- 
mal  ar  redaktb' rens  (=editor)  son  f  How  old  is  your  son  ? 

When  addressing  a  person  whose  name  or  title  is  not 
known,  froken*  is  used  in  the  case  of  unmarried  women, 
and  frequently  min  herre,  min  fru  in  the  case  of  men 
and  married  women,  respectively.  To  use  simply  herrn 
and  frun  is  considered  somewhat  vulgar. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  use  of  these  cumbersome  titles, 
it  is  customary  even  for  people  of  but  slight  acquaintance 
to  agree  that  they  will  use  the  familiar  pronoun  dn  (and 
the  corresponding  possessive  dhi)  in  addressing  each 
other5. 

(3)  Inte  is  in  the    spoken    language  regularly  used  in- 
stead of  icke.     See  further  §  100. 

(4)  Of   the   forms    hava  and    ha,  the  spoken  language 
uses    only    the    shorter,  while  the  written  language  uses 
either  hava  or  ha. 

(5)  On    a   colloquial    use    of    the    possessive   pronouns 
see  §  67,  4.' 


1  Concerning  the  small  initial  letter  see  §  24,  1. 

2  Or,  "Where  do  you  live  now,  Mr.  Anderson?"      Similarly  in  the  other 
cases. 

3  As   in    English,    so   in  Swedish,    words   used    as  titles  before   proper 
names  are  relatively  unstressed;  accordingly,  the  stress  on  the  syllable  indi- 
cated is  in  this  instance  relatively  -weak. 

4  Cf.  §  69,  note  4. 

5  L'deea  tort  titlarna  dispense  with   titles,  as  it  is  called.     See  page  17, 
foot-note  3. 


20 


INDEFINITE  ARTICLE 


(6)  In  easy  speech  the  final  consonant-sound  is  dropped 
in  jag,  det,  och  and  dr,  which  are  then  pronounced  re- 
spectively ja,  da  (or  de},  a  and  a. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. — Gender  is  indicated  in  the  vocabularies  only  in  the  case 
of  neuter  nouns,  which  are  not  nearly  so  numerous  as  those  of 
common  gender.  It  is  important  to  remember  which  nouns  are 
neuter. 


bord  n.  table 
brtin  brown 
den  («.  det)  it 
denna  (n.  detta)  this 
din  (n.  ditt)  (familiar), 

your,  yours  (sing.'} 
du  (familiar},  you    (sing.} 
en  (n.  ett)  a,  an 
er    (formal},  your,  yours 
flicka  girl 
gosse  boy 
han  he 

ha(va)   (sing,  har)  have 
hon  she 
bus  n.  house 


icke  not 

jag  / 

lampa  lamp 

liten  small,  little 

men  but 

rnin  (n.  mitt)  »y/,  mine 

ni  (formal},  you 

och  dwrf 

pa  0« 

stol  c//tfzr 

stor  large 

vacker  beautiful,  pretty 

var  u'here 

vara  (sing,  ar)  fe 


EXERCISE  I-. 

^4.  i.  Jag  har  ett  stort  bord.  2.  Jag  har  en  lampa 
pa  mitt  bord.  3.  Den  ar  vacker.  4.  Mitt  hus  ar  stort, 
men  det  ar  icke  vackert.  5.  Denna  stol  ar  brun.  6.  Hon 
ar  en  vacker  flicka.  7.  Er  gosse  ar  stor.  8.  Har  ni  en 
stol  och  ett  bord?  9.  Ar  ert  bord  brunt  ?  10.  Detta  hus 
ar  icke  ditt.  u.  Ar  din  lampa  vacker?  12.  Var  ar 
din  gosse?  13.  Har  du  ett  hus?  14.  Ar  det  vackert? 


!  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE 

£i  i  He  has  a  table  and  a  chair.  2.  Is  your  (famil- 
iar) chair  brown?  3.  He  is  a  large  boy.  4-  Have  you 
(/*m«/)  a  lamp  on  your  table?  5-  My  house  is  beauti- 
ful but  not  large.  6.  This  girl  is  beautiful.  7.  Where 
is  your  (form.}  house?  8.  This  house  is  mine.  9.  1 
is  not  yours  (/*».)•  10.  Is  your  (/«»*.)  lamp  small? 
ii.  Mine  is  large.  12.  You  (/«»*.)  are  a  little  girl. 
13.  Is  your  (/*r/».)  lamp  beautiful  ?  14.  He  has  a  beau- 
tiful house.  15-  It  is  large. 

-  !    The  order  of  words   in  a   Swedish   sentence   correspond9   pretty   well 


if,  l^y 


(C«  ft. 


22  DEFINITE  ARTICLE  n 

LESSON  II. 
THE  DEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

40-  The  definite  article  is  not  a  separate  word  as  in 
English,  but  is  an  ending  added  to  the  noun;  as,  stol  chair, 
stolen  the  chair;  hus  house,  huset  the  house.  Its  forms  are: 

COMMON  NEUTER 

Sing,  -en,   -n  -et,   -t 

Plur.  -na,   -a,  -en 

Nouns  with  the  definite  article  thus  affixed  are  said  to 
be  in  the  definite  form.  When  no  article  is  added,  the 
noun  is  said  to  be  in  the  indefinite  form1. 

41.  The  singular  forms  -en,  -et  are  used  chiefly  with 
words  ending  in  a  consonant  (see  examples  in  §  40);  -n,  -t, 
chiefly  with  words  ending  in  a  vowel;  as,  flicka  girl,y?/V- 
kan  the  girl;  gosse  boy,    gossen    the    boy;    rike   kingdom, 
riket  the  kingdom. 

In  the  plural  there  is  no  such  distinction  of  gender;  it  is 
largely  the  nature  of  the  preceding  sound  that  determines 
which  form  of  the  article  {-na,  -a  or  -en}  is  to  be  used. 

Note.  —  Further  details  about  the  use  and  distribution  of  the 
various  endings  are  given  in  subsequent  lessons. 

VERBS. 

42.  The  present  indicative  of: 
INFINITIVE  vara  to  be  ha(ya}  to  have 
Sing,  jag,  etc.,  ar                          jag,  etc.,  har 

Plur.  m  aro         we  are  m  ha  (Jiavd)     we  have 

/  aren         you  are  /  han   {haven)  you   have 

de  aro         they  are  de  ha  (Jiava)      they  have 

1  Care  should  he  taken  not  to  confuse  the  term  "indefinite   form"   with 
"indefinite  article." 


II  VERBS— PRESENT  TENSE  23 

43.  The  present  indicative  active  of  all1  other  Swedish 
verbs  is  conjugated  in  one  of  the  following  three    ways: 

INF.  tala  to  speak  skriva  to  write        bo  to  live 

Sing,  jag,  etc.,  talar          jag,  etc.,  skriver    jag,  etc.,  bor 
Plur.  vi  tala  vi  skriva  vi  bo 

I  talen  I  shriven  I  bon 

de  tala  de  skriva  de  bo 

44.  Only  a  few  verbs,  namely  those  whose  infinitives 
do  not  end  in  -a,  are   conjugated  like  bo.     Bxcept   when 
compounded,  these   are    all    monosyllabic.     Compare    the 
forms  of  bo  with  the  shorter  forms  of  ha(va), 

45.  In  all  moods  and  tenses  (not  only  in  the  present  in- 
dicative) the  second  person  plural  of  all  verbs  ends  in  -en  or 
-n.     However,  this  form  is  of  very  limited  use  (see  §  49). 

46.  In  the  present  indicative  active,  observe  that  (i) 
the   singular    ends   in  -r,  which  is  preceded  by  -a  or  -e, 
except  in  verbs  of  the  type  of  bo;   (2)  in  all  verbs  except 
those  of  the  type  of  bo,  the  first  and  third  persons  plural 
end    in  -a;    (3)  in  all  verbs,  including  those  of  the  type 
of    bo,  the   first    and    third    persons   plural    are   identical 
in  form  with  the  infinitive.     But  notice  vara,  pres.  plur. 
aro,  which  is  an  exception. 

47-     The  progressive  and  emphatic  verb- forms  of  Eng- 
lish are  in  Swedish  rendered  by  the  simple  verb: 

he  is   writing"! 

he  does  write  I  han  skriver 

he  writes 
Likewise  in  negative  sentences  and  questions: 

he  is  not  writing!    . 

,       ,  ..    f  nan  skriver  icke 

he  does  not  writej 


1  Except  most  of  the  auxiliaries. 

2  Observe  that  the  negative  follows  the  finite  form    of  the  verb   in   both 
languages. 


24  PRONOUNS  II 

is  he  writing?       1          . 

}-  skriver  hail*. 
does  he  write? 

PRONOUNS. 

48.  Possessive  pronouns  denoting  more  than  one  pos- 
sessor: vdr,  n.  vdrt,  our,  ours;  <fr,  n.  ert,  your,  yours. 

49-  The  plur.  pronoun  /  is  used    only    in    the    more 
elevated  style.     In  other  forms  of  style  and  in  conversa- 
tion, ni  (identical   with    the    formal   sing,    pronoun    ni) 
is  used  in  place  of  /.     Accordingly,    /  talen,    I  shriven,  f 
bon  are  used  only  in  the  elevated  style.     The  plur.  ni  has 
its  verb  in  the  singular  (nitalar2,  etc.),  though  the  plur. 
verb  (nitalcPt  etc.)    often  occurs  in  the  written  language. 

Note.  —  i.  In  the  plural  pronouns  of  the  second  person  (/,  ni, 
possessive  er)  there  is  no  distinction  between  familiar  and  formal 
address. 

2.  Observe  also  that  the  plural  possessive  er  is  identical  with 
the  formal  singular  possessive  er.  Similarly  in  English,  "you", 
"your"  are  used  both  of  one  and  of  more  than  one. 

50-  ORTHOGRAPHY.    The    pronoun    /  you,  is  capital- 
ized.    This   distinguishes  it  from    the    preposition  i  (see 
the  vocabulary). 

51.  PRONUNCIATION:      blonima   (§  9,  3  *)  \giva  (§  14); 
Sverige  (i  silent),  spelled  also  Sverge,    (§  19,   2  a  2). 

52.  ACCENT:     (i)  All  dissyllabic  forms  that    are    the 
result  of    the    addition    of    the    definite    article  to   mono- 
syllabic nouns,  have    the    acute    accent;  as,  hasten    (from 
hast},  stolen    (stol} ,     brevet    (brev),    huset    (lius).     On  the 
other  hand,    observe    the    grave    accent    in  gossen    (from 
gosse},  blomman  (blomma),  riket  (rike}.     That  is,  the  ad- 


1  Observe  the  inverted  order  of  the  questions,  as  in  English. 

2  For  the  sake  of  convenience  these  forms  are   not   included   in    the   verb- 
paradigms.     The  student  should  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  these  are  the 
usual  forms   for   the   second    person  plural.    Pronouns  of  the  second  person 
plur.  are,  however,  by   the  nature  of  things,  not  of  frequent  occurrence. 


II  DEFINITE  ARTICLE  25 

dition  of  the  definite  article  does  not  change  the  nature 
of  the  accent  of  the  word  or  form  to  which  it  is  added. 
For  further  illustrations  see  the  various  declensions. 
Cf.  §  5,  3  d. 

(2)  All  verb-forms  of  more  than  one  syllable    have  the 
grave  accent  in  all  tenses  and  moods1,  except    that  pres- 
ent   indicative   singular  verb-forms    ending    in  -er   have 
the  acute;  as,  sitter ',  skriver,  giver. 

(3)  Of  the  words  mentioned  in  this  lesson2,  not  taking 
into   account    inflectional    forms,  eller  and    Sverige   have 
the  acute  accent. 

53.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  In  the  spoken  language  a 
plural  subject  is  regularly  followed  by  the  singular  form 
of  the  verb3,  the  plural  verb-form  never  being  used.  Ex.: 
m  talar,  ni  talar,  de  talar;  m  dr,  ni  dr,  de  dr.  More- 
over, the  pronoun  /  is  not  used  in  the  spoken  language 
(see  §  49). 

(2)  In  place  of  giver,  giva,  the  spoken  language  reg- 
ularly   uses   ger,    the   written    language    frequently  ger, 
plur.  ge,  gen,  ge. 

(3)  In    the    definite    form   of  the    singular  of  neuters, 
the  spoken  language  of  some  parts  of  Sweden  omits   the 
final  -//  as,  huse  for  huset. 

(4)  In  easy  speech,  dent  (pronounced  dom,  i.  e.  damm}, 
the  objective  form  of  de  (see  §  186),  is  in  some  parts  of 
Sweden  used  as   the  subject;  as,  dom  a  for  de  dro. 

(5)  In   conversation   de   is  pronounced  di,  and  mycket, 
my  eke. 

1  A  few   verbs,  however,   have  the  acute  accent  in  all  forms.     See  §  66,  3. 

2  In  the  following  lessons  the  acute  accent  will  be  indicated  only  in  the 
case  of  -words  occurring  for  the  first  time  in  each  lesson. 

3  But  a  predicate  adjective  is  in  the  plural  (see  §  60)    if  the  subject  is   p\\i- 
ral;  as,  aV  «(r)   bruna,   (de  aro  bruna)   they  are  brown. 


26  DEFINITE  ARTICLE  II 

(6)  In  easy  speech  rod  is  pronounced  ro,  and  ////  is 
frequently  pronounced  tc. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  It  will  be  found  most  convenient  to  learn  the  gender 
of  nouns  by  repeating  and  memorizing  the  definite  form  of  the 
singular. 

blomma  flower  kvinna  woman 

bla  blue  lang  long 

bo  (sing,  -r)  live  (=dwcll)      mycket  adv.,  very 

brev  n.  letter  plocka  (sing,  -2^')  pick,  gather 

de  (plur.  of  han,  lion,  den,     rike  n.  kingdom 

det)  they  rod  red 

dar  there  sitta  (sing,  -er)  sit 

eller  or  skriva    (sing,  -er)  write 

gata  street  Sverige  n.  Sweden 

giva  (sing,  -er1)  ^'z'<?               tala  (sing,  -ar)  /a/£,  s/><?a& 

har  here  till  /0 

hast  horse  vi  o>£ 

i  ?X  z'w/<?  var  our,  ours 
I  jy0«   (plur."} 

EXERCISE  II. 

A.  i.  Var  hast  ar  mycket  vacker.  2.  Har  ar  en  bla 
blomma.  3.  Blomman  ar  icke  bla.  Den  ar  rod.  4.  Gos- 
sen bor  i  ett  mycket  stort  hus.  5.  Kvinnan  sitter  pa 
stolen  och  skriver2  ett  langt  brev.  6.  Sverige  ar  ett  stort 
rike.  7.  Gossen  och  flickan  aro  pa  gatan.  8.  Sitter 
icke  gossen  pa  stolen?  9.  Flickan  giver  kvinnan  brevet. 
10.  Bo  de  har  eller  dar?  n.  De  ha  en  brun  hast. 
12.  Var  aren  I?  13.  Gossen  plockar  en  vacker  blomma. 
14.  Denna  gata  ar  lang.  15.  De  giva  brevet  till  kvinnan. 


1  That  is,  giv-er,  tlock-ar.      , 

2  In  cases  of  this  kind,  English  usually  omits  the  conjunction  and  uses  a 
participle  for  the  second  verb. 


n  DEFINITE  ARTICLE  27 

B.  i.  I  am  writing1  a  long  letter.  2.  He  is  sitting 
on  my  chair.  3.  Is  the  flower  blue  or  red?  4.  The 
boy  is  giving  the  flower  to  the  woman.  5.  This  king- 
dom is  very  large.  6.  Is  this  street  very  long?  7.  Here 
is  a  letter.  8.  Where  do  you  (plur.}  live? — We  live  in 
this  house.  9.  Is  the  horse  there?  10.  The  boy  and 
the  girl  live  in  Sweden,  n.  This  horse  is  ours.  Where 
is  yours  (plur.}  ?  12.  The  lamp  and  the  letter  are  on  the 
table.  13.  Are  you  writing  a  letter  to  the  boy  ?  14.  Have 
they  a  large  house?  15.  They  are  not  talking. 

1   See  §  47. 


28  DECLENSION  III 

LESSON  III. 
DECLENSION. 

54.  Swedish   nouns  are  divided   into   five   declensions 
according  to  the  formation  of  the  plural:  (1)  -or,  (2)  -ar, 
(3)  -er,  (4)  -n,   (5)  plural  without  ending. 

Note.  —  The  definite  form  of  the  plural  is  made  by  further 
adding  the  proper  plur.  definite  article  (see  §  41,  end);  as,  flicka, 
plur.  flicker,  def.  plur.  flickorna  the  girls. 

55.  THE  GENITIVE.     Swedish  has  the   same  cases   as 
English.     The  genitive  of  all  nouns  is  made   by   adding 
-s  to  the  base-form,  indefinite  or  definite,    both    singular 
and  plural.     No   apostrophe   is   used.     See   examples   in 
the  following  note  and  in  §  59. 

Note.  —  In  Swedish  as  in  English,  adjectival  words  (e.  g.,  adjec- 
tives, adjective  pronouns,  indefinite  article)  have  no  genitive  end- 
ing; as,  en  liten  flickas  docka  a  little  girl's  doll,  min  lararirinas 
stol  my  teacher's  chair,  denna  flickas  syster  this  girl's  sister. 

56.  In  English   the   genitive   case   is   normally    used 
to  express  possession  or  connection  only    in    the   case   of 
living  beings.     In  Swedish  it  is  freely   used   also   of   in- 
animate objects;  as, 

Animate:  the  girl's  hat  flickans  hatt1 

Inanimate:  the  color  of  the  book      bokens  farg 

FIRST  DECLENSION. 

57.  The    First    Declension    (plur.  -or}    contains    only 
nouns    of    common    gender.     To    this    declension    belong 
almost  all  nouns  that  end  in  -a?.     The  plural   is   formed 

1  Never  hatten  flickans:  the  genitive  stands  first.     The  following  noun  has 
indefinite  form,  though  definite  in  meaning. 

2  The    principal     words    ending  in  -a   that  do  not  belong  to   the   First 
Declension  are  the  neuters  oga  eye.  ora  ear  (see  §  HO)  and   hjiirta  heart  (see 

longs  to  the  Third  Declension   (see  page  47.  foot-note  2). 


HI  FIRST  DECLENSION  29 

by  dropping  -a  and  adding  -or;  as,  flicka  girl,  \>\\vc .  flicker ; 
lampa  lamp,  plur.  lampor. 

Note.  —  This  declension  contains  also  a  few  nouns  not  ending 
in  -a:  ros  rose,  plur.  rosor;  vdg  wave,  plur.  v&gor;  toffel  slipper, 
plur.  toff  lor1. 

58-  DEFINITE  FORM.    The  definite  sing,  adds  -n;  the 
def.  plur.  adds  -na;  as,  tampan,  lamporna. 

Note.  —  Ros  and  v&g  add  -en  in  the  def.  sing.,  rosen,  v&gen; 
toffel  adds  -n,  toffeln*.  In  the  plural,  -na  is  added,  rosorna,  vagor- 
na,  tofflorna. 

59-  Examples  of  the  First  Declension  are:  gata  street, 
kvinna  woman. 

INDEFINITE  DEFINITE  INDEFINITE      DEFINITE 

SING,    gata  gatan  kvinna  kvinnan 

Gen.     galas          gatans  kvinnas  kvinnans 

PLUR.  gator          gatorna  kvinnor  kvinnorna 

Gen.     gators         gatornas  kvinnors  kvinnornas 

ADJECTIVES  AND  PRONOUNS. 

60.  An  adjective   modifying  a  noun  of  either  gender 
in  the  plural  adds   -a   to  the  uninflected  form;  as,  langa 
gator  long  streets,  gatorna  dro  langa  the  streets  are  long, 
bordet  och  stolen  dro  bruna   the    table    and    the    chair   are 
brown. 

61.  This  is   also    the   case   with   possessive  pronouns 
when  denoting  possession  of  more  than  one  object:  plur. 
mina,  dina,  era    (denoting  either  one  or  more   than    one 
possessor),  vara. 

62.  For  the  third  person,  the  genitives  ham  his,/ten- 
nes  her,  hers,    dess    (gen.    of    den,    def)    its,    deras  their, 
theirs,  are  used    in  place  of  possessive  pronouns.     These 


1  Cf.  §  G8,  note  2. 

2  Cf.  §  69,  note  1  b. 


30  FIRST  DECLENSION  III 

genitives,  not  being  adjectival  forms,  are  invariable,  and 
have  no  ending  when  used  with  neuter  or  plural  nouns. 
Note.  —  These  genitives  are  not  used  in  the  predicate  when  the 
word  for  which  they  stand  is  the  subject  of  the  clause.  Karl  plockar 
hans  blomma  can  not  refer  to  Carl's  flower,  as  is  possible  in  the 
English:  "Carl  is  picking  his  flower."  On  the  contrary,  the 
possessive  pronouns  may  also  refer  to  the  subject.  Ex.:  Han 
plockar  min  blomma.  He  is  picking  my  flower.  Jag  plockar  min 
blomma.  I  am  picking  my  flower.  This  subject  is  treated  more 
fully  in  §  1 88. 

63.     The  plural  of  denna,  detta  is  dessa  these. 
64-     Adjective  inflection  summarized: 

COMMON  NEUTER  COMMON         NEUTER 

Sing,  unchanged  -/  stor  large  stort 

Plur.  -a  stora 

65.  PRONUNCIATION:    farg     (§    19,    2    a    2);     sjunga 
(§§  J3>  4»*    J9>  5  b);  manga  (§  19,  5  b);  om  (§  6,  note    i; 
Phonology  §  i8a).    For    the  quantity  in    stols,    etc.,  see 
§  6,  note  2.     Observe    the    change    of  quantity  in    min 
(niitf)'.    mina;  din  {ditf)\  dina. 

66.  ACCENT:    (i)  All  forms  of  all  words  in  the  First 
Declension  have  the  grave  accent,  except  the  monosyllables 
ros  and  vag,  which  have    the    acute    accent    in    the   def. 
sing.1  (rosen,  vagen*),  and  toffel,  which  has  the  acute  accent 
in    the    indef.    and   def.    singular.     See  §§  5,  3  d;    5,  2. 
The  plurals  ro$or(na),  vagor(na},  however,  have  the  grave 
accent;  tofflor(na)  has  either  the  grave  or  the  acute. 

(2)  The  plural  of  adjectives  and  possessives  has  the 
regular  grave  accent;  as,  Idnga,  manga,  mina.  This  is 
also  the  case  with  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable 
stressed  on  the  first  syllable  and  which  have  the  acute  ac- 


1  The  monosyllabic  indef.  sing,  ros  and  vag  also  have  the  acute  accent. 
Notice  is  taken  only  of  \vords  and  forms  of  more  than  one  syllable  having 
the  acute  accent. 


Ill  FIRST  DECLENSION  31 

cent  in  the  singular;  as,  vacker  (acute),  butvac&ra  (grave). 

(3)  Verbs  with  the  first  syllable  unstressed    (as  bcrat'ta) 
have  the  acute  accent  in  all  forms  in  the  greater  part  of 
Sweden. 

(4)  Of    the   words   mentioned    in    this    lesson,  bcrat'ta, 
fagel,   toffel  and  under  have  the  acute  accent. 

67.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  Dessa,  as  the  singular  dcnna 
(n.  delta),  is  in  the  spoken  language  followed  by  the  noun 
in  the  definite  form.  Instead  of  dessa  the  spoken  lan- 
guage usually,  and  the  written  language  sometimes,  em- 
ploys dc  hii'r  (very  often  pron.  di  hd'r},  Cf.  §  39,  i. 

(2)  The   spoken  language  almost  always  substitutes   a 
prepositional  phrase  for  the  genitive  in  the  case  of  inani- 
mate objects.    See  §§  119;   134,  2. 

(3)  In  the   spoken   language  the   use    of    the  genitive 
dess  is  avoided.     Either  the  genitive  of  the  def.  form  of 
the  noun  for  which  dess  would  stand,  is  used  instead,  or 
the  expression  is  changed  so  that  the  use  of  a    genitive 
is  not  necessary.     Cf.  also  §  67,  2.     Even  in  the  written, 
language  dess  is  of  less  frequent  occurrence  than  "its"  in 
English;  cf.  §  62,  note. 

(4)  In  the  spoken  language  (primarily  in  easy  speech) 
the  possessive  pronouns  and  the    genitives   of    the    third 
person  personal  pronouns  are  sometimes  placed  after  the 
noun,  which  is  then  put  in  the  definite  form,  except  in  the 
case  of  words  indicating  relationship,  and  frequently  hustru 
wife.     When  used    in   the   genitive   case,    the  possessive 
pronoun,  and  not  the  noun,  has  the  ending  -s.  Ex.:  gos- 
sen  in  in  my  boy,  far   min    my    father,    bror    mins    backer 
my  brother's  books,  hustru(ii)  hans  his  wife. 


32  FIRST  DECLENSION  III 

VOCABULARY. 

Note. —  The  following  words  belonging  to  the  First  Declension 
have  been  given  in  previous  vocabularies:  blomma,  flicka,  gata, 
kvinna,  lampa. 

In  the  following  vocabularies  the  declension  is  indicated  by 
Arabic  numerals.  Words  belonging  to  a  declension  not  yet  treated 
are  left  undesignated.  The  declension  of  these  is  indicated  in  the 
notes  preceding  the  vocabularies  in  Lessons  IV,  VI,  VII  and  VIII. 

berat'ta  {sing,  -ar)  tell,  relate  lararin'na  (1~)  (woman*)  teacher 

bok  book  manga  plur,,  many  (inuch} 

deras  their,  theirs  om  about,  in,  during 

dess  its  prinses'sa  (1)  princess 

docka  (1)  doll  ros  (1)  rose 

duva  (1)  dove,  pigeon  saga  (1)  tale,  story,  fairy-tale 

flyga  (sing,  -er)  fly  sjunga  (sing,  -er)  sing 

fura  (1)  fir-tree  skog  forest,  woods 

fagel  bird  skola  (1)  school 

farg  color  syster  sister 

gren  branch  toff  el  (1)  slipper 

bans  his  under  under 

hatt  hat  vag  (1)  wave 

henries  her,  hers  vaxa  (si?ig.  -er)  grow 

EXERCISE  III. 

A.  i.  En  liten  fagel  sitter  pa  grenen  och  sjunger1. 
2.  Furorna  aro  stora.  3.  Duvan  flyger  till  skogen. 
4.  L/ararinnan  ar  i  skolan2.  5.  Hon  berattar  en  saga 
om  en  vacker  prinsessa.  6.  Blommor  vaxa  i  skogen. 

7.  Lararinnans  syster  ar  i  skogen  och  plockar1  blommor. 

8.  Hennes    fagel    bar    en    vacker    farg.       Den     ar     bla. 

9.  Gossen  skriver   i   en    stor    bok.      10.  Han    skriver    om 
Sverige.      n.  Dessa  rosor   aro   roda.      12.    Ar  din  dockas 

1  See  page  26,  foot-note  2. 

2  Observe  the  def.  form  of  the  noun.     Cf.  §  125. 


Ill  FIRST  DECLENSION  33 

hatt  brun  eller  rod?  13.  Tofflorna  aro  under  ert  bord. 
14.  Aro  vagorna  mycket  stora?  15.  Flickornas  lara- 
•rinna  talar  om  Sverige.  16.  Blommorna  aro  pa  din 
lararinnas  bord. 

B.  i.  The  girls'  teacher1  is  sitting  under  a  large 
branch.  2.  She  is  telling  a  story  about  a  little  bird. 
3.  Is  the  story  beautiful?  4.  Where  do  these  roses  grow? 
5.  Do  many  fir-trees  grow  in  Sweden?  6.  The  girl's 
doll  has  a  blue  hat.  7.  Have  the  teachers  many  flowers? 
8.  This  wave  is  not  large.  9.  His  slippers  are  red. 
10.  Are  their  pigeons  flying  to  the  woods?  n.  Is  the 
woman's  letter  on  my  table?  12.  Your  sister  is  speak- 
ing about  the  color  of  the  book.  13.  The  girl's  doll  has  a 
beautiful  house.  14.  My  sister's  teacher  lives  in  their 
house. 


1    See  page  2S,  foot-note  1. 


34  SECOND  DECLENSION 

LESSON  IV. 
SECOND  DECLENSION. 

68.  The  Second  Declension    (plur.    -ar)    contains   only 
nouns  of  common  gender.     To  this  declension  belong: 

(1)  A  large  number    of    monosyllabic    nouns    ending 
in  a  consonant;  as,  stol  chair,  hast  horse. 

(2)  A   few    monosyllabic    nouns  ending   in    a    vowel; 
as,  sjb  lake,  &  river. 

(3)  Most  nouns    of    common    gender    ending    in    un- 
stressed -e,    -el,  -en,  -er;  as,  gosse  boy,   fag  el  bird,  socken 
parish,  syster  sister. 

(4)  Nouns    ending    in  -dom,    -ing,    -ling,    -ning,    -ujig 
and  a  few    other    suffixes;    as,   sjukdom   sickness,  homing 
king,  morgon  morning,   sommar  summer,  fjaril  butterfly. 

Note.  —  i.  Nouns  ending  in  unstressed  -e  drop  this    before  add- 
ing -ar;  as,  gosse,  plur.  gossar. 

2.  Nouns    ending  in    unstressed    -el,  -en,  -er   drop  the  vowel  of 
the  suffix  before   adding  -ar;  as,  fagel,  plur.  fdglar;  socken,  plur. 
socknar;  syster,   plur.  systrar. 

3.  Also  in  a  few  other  cases   the  vowel    of  a   suffix   is  dropped 
before  -ar:  sommar  summer,  plur.  somrar;  morgon  morning,  plur. 
morgnar;  afton  evening,  plur.  aftnar;  djdvul  devil,  plur.  djavlar. 

4.  Moder  mother,  and  dotter  daughter,  besides  dropping  the  vowel 
of  the  suffix,  also  modify  (see§n)  the  root-vowel,   plur.  modrar, 
dottrar. 

5.  Moder  is  generally  contracted  to  mor  in  the  indefinite  singu- 
lar1.— Herre    gentleman,  becomes   herr    (Mr.)    when    used    before 
a  proper  noun8   or    before    another    title;    as,  herr  Johansson  Mr. 
Johnson. — Konung  king,  has  also  the  form   kung,  plur.  kungar. 

1  But  the  def.  sing,  and  the  plural  (indef.  and  def.)  are  never  so  contract- 
ed (cf.  §  69,  note  1  b,  and  page  35,  foot-note  2).     See  the  paradigm,  §  7O. 
On  the  contrary,  note  k(on)ungen,   k(.on)unear.   k(on)unearna. 

2  Observe  also  furste  prince,  but  furst  Bismarck:  cf.  §  106,  note  2. 


IV 


SECOND  DECLENSION 


35 


69.  DEFINITE  FORM.     The  definite  sing,    adds  -en    or 
-n;  the  def.  plur.  adds  -na. 

Note.  —  i.  The  ending  -«  is   used:    (a)   after   vowels;   as,  gosse, 
gossen;  d,  an;  (b)  after  unstressed -tf/1,  -erz;  as,  fdgeln,  system. 

2.  A  few  suffixes   add    either    -en  or    -«;    as,    sommar(e)n,   fja- 
ril(e)n. 

3.  Herre  has  def .  Herren  (herren]  when  it  means    "the    Lord" 
("ruler",  "lord"),  but  herrn  when  it  means  "the  gentleman". 

4.  Some  nouns  ending  in  -en  drop  the  vowel  of    the   suffix   and 
add   -en;    as,    sockcn  parish,    def.    socknen.    But   of  frokcn  young 
lady,  and  a  few  other  words,  the   definite   form   in  the  singular  is 
the  same  as  the  indefinite. 

5.  In  the  written  language  -ne  is  frequently  met  with  as  the  def. 
ending  of  the  plural.     While  most  writers  of  the    present    day  al- 
ways use  -na,  some  employ  -ne  with  nouns  of   this   declension    re- 
ferring to  persons  of  the  male  sex;  others,    with   all   nouns  whose 
plurals  end  in  -ar,  irrespective  of    sex;  cf.  §  107,  note  5.     Formerly 
the  ending  -ne  was  used  much  more  than  now,  and  in   the  works 
of  the  older   writers,    it   was   regularly    employed    with    a    certain 
class3  of  nouns. 

70.  Examples  of  this  declension  are:  halt  hat,  &  river, 
gosse  boy,   f&gel   bird,    socken    parish,  fro  ken  young  lady, 
mo(de)r  mother,  morgon  morning,  sommar  summer,  fjdril 
butterfly. 

INDEFINITE         DEFINITE  INDEFINITE      DEFINITE 

Sing,   halt  flatten  a  an 

Plur.   hattar        hattarna  Aar  Aarna 

Sing,  gosse          gossen 
Plur.  gossar       gossarna 

Sing,  socken         socknen 
Plur.  socknar      socknarna 


fagel 
faglar 

fdgeln 
faglarna 

frbken 
fro  knar 

frbken 
frbknarna 

himmeln    himlt 
s  modren,  doth 

n  or  himmelen. 
•en  are  sometimes  used. 

1  Otkimmcl  heaven,  the  def.  form  is 

2  Instead  of  modern,  dottern,  the  forms  ; 
Cf.  §  107,  note  1  and  foot-note. 

3  Nouns  that  according  to  an  older  (now  only  dialectical)  gender-system 
•were  masculine,  though  not  names  of  living  beings. 


36  SECOND  DECLENSION  IV 

INDEFINITE  DEFINITE        INDEFINITE      DEFINITE 

Sing.    ?no(de~)r      modern  morgon  morgoncn 

Plur.    modrar        mbdrarna         morgnar  morgnarna 

Sing,   sommar       sommar(e}n    fjaril  fjaril(e)n 

Plur.    somrar         somrarna         fjarilar  fjarilarna 

Note.  —The  genitive,  which  is  always  regular  (except  as  stated 
in  §§  112;  119,  end),  is  omitted  here  and  in  subsequent  paradigms. 

VERBS. 

71.   Past  tense  of  vara  and  ha(va}\ 

Sing,  jag,   etc.,  var  jag,   etc.,  hade 

Plur.  m  voro  z'i  hade 

I  voren  I  haden 

de  voro  de  hade 

72-  ORTHOGRAPHY:  sommar,  somrar  (see  Phonology 
§  1 8  a).  —  Concerning  titles  see  §  24,  i. 

73.  PRONUNCIATION:    homing  (§   9,  3b);   socken    (usu- 
ally the  o  of  §  9,  3  a);  morgon  (g  here  not  =  Swedish/); 
morgnar    (§   16  b);   djavul  (§  16);  sjuk,  sjb  (§  13,   4). — 
The  a  of  hade  is  usually  short   (§  6,    note    i).     For  the 
quantity  in  faglar,  froknar,  modrar,  etc.,   see    Phonology 
§  14  B  2    b.     Sjbn,    def.    of   sjb,    is   pronounced   with   a 
short  vowel;  cf.  §  6,  note  i. 

74.  ACCENT:      (i)    Observe    that     the     def.    sing,     of 
monosyllables  ending  in    a    consonant    (as  stolen,  hasten} 
has  the  acute  accent,    while   the   plural,    both    indefinite 
and    definite,    has   the   grave    accent    (as   stolar,    hastar; 
stolarna,  hastarna). 

(2)  Some  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  with  the  suf- 
fix -^/have  the  acute  accent  in  the  singular,  both  indefinite 
and  definite  (as  fagel,  fageln};  others  have  the  grave 
accent. — All  nouns  with  the  suffix  -en  have  the  acute 


IV  SECOND  DECLENSION  37 

accent  in  the  indef.  and  def.  singular. — So  also  have 
those  ending  in  -er,  with  the  exception  of  moder,  dot- 
ter  and  syster,  which  have  the  grave  accent. 

The  nouns  that  have  the  acute  accent  in  the  singular, 
have,  however,  the  grave  accent  in  the  plural,  according 
to  the  rule. 

(3)  For  the  accent  of  verbs  see  §  52,  2. 

(4)  Of  the  words  mentioned  in  this  lesson,  socken,frbken, 
over,  pengar(na)   and  Bjbrkman  have  the  acute  accent. — 
Stockholm  has  either  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent.     Bade 
usually  has  the  grave,  but  sometimes  the   acute,  accent. 

75.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  Kung  is  more  common  in 
the  spoken  than  in  the  written  language. 

(2)  Of   sommar(e}n    and  fjdril(e)n,    the   longer    forms 
are  used  in  the  written  language,  the  shorter  in  all  forms 
of  style,  including  the  spoken  language. 

(3)  The   form    mor  is   more   common    in    the    spoken 
than  in  the  written  language. 

(4)  In    the    spoken    language    the   indefinite   form    of 
socken  may  be  used  also  as  the  definite. 

(5)  In  the  spoken  language  -ne  does  not  occur  in  the 
use  mentioned  in  §  69,  note  5. 

(6)  Remember  that  the  spoken  language  has    vi,    etc., 
•uar.     See  §  53,  i.     This  holds  good  for  all   tenses. 

(7)  In    Central    Sweden    drottning    is    generally     pro- 
nounced dronning. 

(8)  In   easy   speech  var  was,  were,  is  pronounced   va, 
and  aldrig,  aldri. — Instead    of   dag,    dagen,    dagar,    easy 
speech  employs  da,  dan,  dar1. — In  the  plural  morgnar,  g 
is  usually  not  heard   (see  §  16  b);  in  easy  speech,  g  may 
be  omitted  in  the  singular  also  (pron.  morron}. 

1   In  the  written  language  dar  is  on  a  higher  level,  stylistically ,  than  iia(n). 


SECOND  DECLENSION 


IV 


VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  The  following  words  belonging  to  the  Second  Declension 
have  been  given  in  previous  vocabularies:  fagel,  gosse,   gren,   hatt, 
hast,  skog,  stol,  syster. 
afton  (2)  evening;  i  afton     herre   (2)  gentleman, 


hos  with,  by,  at  the  house   of 
komma  (sing,  -er)  come 
konung,  kung  (2)  king 
moder,  mor  (2)  mother 
dag  (2)  day;  i  dag  to-day;     inorgon  (2)  morning;  pa  mor1- 
om  dagen  in  the  day-time         gonen  in  the  — ,  this  — 
om  in,  during,  about 
pengar  (2)  plur.,  money 
sjuk  sick,  ill 
sjukdom   (2)   sickness 
SJ°  (2)  lake,  sea 
sock  en  (2)  parish 
soramar    (2)    summer;    i    - 
this  — ;  om    -en    in  the  — 
a  (2)   river 
over  over,  across 


this  evening;  om  aftonen 

in  the  evening 
aldrig  never 
bade  .       .  och  both  .  ,  .  and 


djavul  (2)  devil 

dotter   (2)  daughter 

drottning  (2)  qiieen 

fjaril  (2)   butterfly 

fru    (2)  wife,  lady,    Mrs. 

fran  from 

froken    (2)    miss,   (young) 

lady,  Miss 
hemma  at  home 
herr  Mr. 


EXERCISE  IV. 

A.  i.  Konungen  och  drottningen  bo  i  Stockholm. 
2.  Var  ar  Stockholm?  3.  Min  syster  var  hos  froken 
Bjorkman  i  dag.  4.  Har  ar  ett  brev  fran  herr  och  fru 
Johansson1.  5.  Froken  var  icke  hemma.  6.  Hade  de 
manga  pengar?  7.  Dessa  socknar  ha  manga  sjoar. 
8.  Faglarna  sitta  pa  grenarna  och  sjunga.  9.  Pengarna 
aro  hemma.  10.  Hade  hon  manga  dottrar  ?  n.  Fjarilen 
sitter  pa  blomman.  12.  Faglarna  flyga  over  an.  13.  Bade 
herrn  och  frun  voro  hemma  i  dag  pa  morgonen2. 

1  Johnson.  2  I  dag  pa  morgonen  this  morning. 


IV  SECOND  DECLENSION  39 

B.  i .  Sweden  has  many  large  lakes  and  many  rivers. 
2.  Your  mother  was  not  at  home.  3.  Where  are  the 
butterflies?  4.  Are  the  doves  flying  across  the  lake? 
5.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Lind  do  not  live  there.  6.  The  horses 
are  coming  from  the  river.  7.  The  lake  is  beautiful  in 
the  summer.  8.  The  girls'  mother  was  sick.  9.  Does 
Miss  Bjorkman  live  with  Mrs.  Lind?  10.  The  gentle- 
man's sister  is  coming1  this  evening,  n.  Where  does 
the  King  of  Sweden  live?  12.  The  boy  had  many 
butterflies.  13.  The  parish  is  not  large.  14.  Mrs.  Lind's 
daughters  were  never  at  home  in  the  evening. 

1   Both  English  and  Swedish  sometimes  use  the  present  tense  to   indicate 
future   time,  as  here. 


40  THE  ADJECTIVE 

LESSON  V. 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

76.  INDEFINITE  FORM.     The    forms    of    the    adjective 
given  in  the  previous  lessons  (§§  29;  60)  are  used  when  the 
accompanying   noun  has  indefinite  meaning  or  when  the 
adjective  is  a  predicate  adjective.     This  is  called  the  in- 
definite form  of  the  adjective. 

77.  DEFINITE  FORM.     An  adjective  modifying  a  noun 
with  the  definite  article    has    the    ending    -a1    for    both 
genders,  singular    and    plural;    as,    stora.     This  is  called 
the  definite  form  of   the  adjective. 

78.  THE  PREPOSITIVE  DEFINITE  ARTICLE.   The  definite 
form  of  the  adjective  (followed  by  a  noun  with  the  definite 
article)  is  regularly2  preceded  by  another  definite  article, 
which  is  called  the  prepositive  definite  article.     The  article 
appended  to    the  noun  (see  §  40)  is  known  as   the   post- 
positive definite  article.     The  forms  of  the  prepositive  def- 
inite article3  are: 

COMMON  NEUTER 

Sing,  den  del 

Plur.  ~dT~ 

79.  SUMMARY.     When  used    with  a  noun  that  has  the 
definite  form,  the  adjective  must   be   put  in  the   definite 
form    (-a),    and    is    preceded    by  the  prepositive  definite 
article;  as,  den  vita  hasten  the  white  horse,  del  hbga  huset 
the  high  house,  de  langa  gatorna  the  long  streets. 

Note.  —  Further   details    about   the   formation    and   use    of    the 
definite  and  indefinite  adjective  are  given  in  Lesson  XI. 

1  Identical  with  the  plural  of  the  indefinite  form. 

2  Except  as  stated  in  §  149. 

3  Observe  that  the  prepositive  definite  article  is  identical  in  form    with 
the  personal  pronoun  den,  det,  de. 


V  VERBS  — PAST  TENSE  41 

VERBS. 

80.  THE  PAST  TENSE  OF  WEAK  VERBS.  Review  hade 
in  §  71.  Past  indicative  active  of  tala  speak,  bygga 
build,  kbpa  buy,  bo  live: 

Sing,  jag,  etc.,  talade       byggde  kopte  bodde 

Plur.  vi  talade  byggde  kopte  bodde 

I  taladen  byggden  kbpten  bodden 

de  talade  byggde  kbpte  bodde 

The  past  tense  of  most  Swedish  verbs  ends  in  -adc, 
-de,  -te  or  -dde.  Observe  the  dental  consonant  (d,  /)  in 
each  ending;  cf.  Eng.  lose,  lost;  call,  called.  The  past 
tense  is  never  monosyllabic.  Such  verbs  are  known  as 
-weak  verbs.  There  is  no  change  for  person  except  in  the 
second  person  plural,  where  -n  is  added. 

81-  THE  PAST  TENSE  OF  STRONG  VERBS.    Review    var 
in    §    71.     Past    indicative    active  of  skriva  write: 
Sing,  jag,  etc.,  skrev 
Plur.  vi  skrevo 
I  skreven 
de  skrevo 

Some  of  the  verbs  most  frequently  used  (though  fewer 
in  number  than  those  referred  to  in  §  80)  form  their 
past  tense  by  changing  the  root  vowel;  as,  skriva,  past 
skrev.  No  tense-sign  is  added;  the  past  sing,  is  monosyl- 
labic, unless  compounded.  Cf.  Eng.  run,  ran;  break, 
broke;  fall,  fell;  sing,  sang.  Such  verbs  are  known  as 
strong  verbs. 

Note.  —  Almost  all  strong  verbs  with  long  i  as  the  root-vowel 
in  the  pres.  inf.,  have  long  e  in  the  past  tense.  Those  having 
some  other  root-vowel  than  long  i  in  the  pres.  inf.,  have  some 
other  vowel  than  long  e  in  the  past  tense.  The  various  systems 
of  vowel-change  in  the  formation  of  the  past  tense  of  strong  verbs 
are  treated  in  subsequent  lessons. 


42  VERBS— PAST  TENSE 

82.  Verbs  ending  in 

-r  in  pres.  sing.  ind.  act.  have  past  tense  in  -dde, 
-ar  in  pres.  sing.  ind.  act.  have  past  tense  in  -ade, 

-de 


-er  in  pres.  sing.  ind.  act.  have  past  in 


no  tense-sign,  but 


vowel-change 
Examples  are: 

PRES.  SING.  PAST  SING. 

bor  bodde 

Weak     talar  talade 

bygger  byggde 

kbper  kbpte 

Strong     skriver1  skrev 

83-  ORTHOGRAPHY.  Concerning  svensk,  tysk  see  §  24,  2. 

84-  PRONUNCIATION:    nej    (§     12);    svensk     (§9,   i  c); 
son  (§  9,  3  b);     GbteboSg     (§  19,  2  a);   kbpa  (§   14);  hbgt 
(§  1 8).     The  prepos.  def.  article  is  pronounced  like   the 
personal  pronoun  (see  §  37). — For  the  quantity  in  van,  vem- 
see  §  6,  note  i.     Concerning  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  in 
kbpte  see  §  6,  note  2.     Observe  the  change  in  the  quan- 
tity of  the  vowel  in  verbs  of  the  type  of  bo,  bodde. 

85.  ACCENT.    For  the  accent  of  the  def.   form  of  adjec- 
tives, cf.  §  66,  2.  —  For  the  accent  of  verbs  see  §  52,  2. 

86.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  The  spoken  language  gener- 
ally avoids  the  use  of  endast,  employing  in  place  of  it  bara> 
which  is  also  frequently  used    in    the   written    language. 
Another  literary  word  with    the    same   meaning  is    blott,- 
this  is  not  used  in  speaking. 

(2)  The  colloquial  forms  of  the  prepositive  article  def, 
^correspond  to  those  of  the  personal  pronoun;  see  §§  39,  6; 

1    Observe  that  all  strong  verbs  have  -er  in  the  pres.  sing.,    but   that   not 
all  verbs  with  -er  in  the  pres.  sing,  are  strong. 


V  THE    ADJECTIVE  43 

53,  5. — When  used  as  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  att 
is  generally  pronounced  a.  Observe  the  similar  pronun- 
ciation of  av  in  (5)  below,  and  of  och  (§  39,  6). 

(3)  In  a  large  part  of  Sweden  the  past  tense  ending  in 
-ade  drops  -de  in  easy  speech;  as,  tala  spoke,   for  talade. 

(4)  The    definite    staden    is   in    the    spoken    language 
usually    shortened   to    stan,  and    in   easy    speech  stad  is 
pronounced  sta. 

(5)  In  easy  speech  kdpte  (past  of  kopa)    is   often   pro- 
nounced with  short  b;  observe  that  there  is  in  this  case 
change  in  the  quality  as  well  as  in  the  quantity   of   the 
b. — In  easy  speech  av  is  in  some   parts  of  Sweden   pro- 
nounced d;  in  others,  av. — In  easy  speech  the   k  is    not 
pronounced  in  the  neuter  forms   svenskt,   tyskt. — In    Cen- 
tral Sweden  the  vowel  of  son    is    frequently    pronounced 
short. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  The  following  weak  verbs  have  occurred  in  previous 
vocabularies:  berat'ta  (-ade),  plocka  (-ade),  tala  (-ade),  bo  (-dde), 
hava  (hade1),  vaxa  (-te).  In  the  case  of  verbs  forming  their  past 
tense  in  a  way  already  discussed2,  the  past  tense  will  be  indicated 
instead  of  the  pres.  sing.;  see  §  82. 

att3  conj.,  that;  (also  used  endast  only 

before  infinitives)  to  flagga  ( 1 )  flag 

av  of,  from  gul  yellow 

bro  (2)  bridge  hog  high,  tall 

bygga  (-de)  build  ja  yes 

den  («.  det,//?^r.  de)  the  kopa  (-te)  buy 


1  Irregular. 

2  That  is,  for  this  lesson,  weak  verbs,  and  strong   verbs   with  the   vowel- 
change  i;  e. 

3  "Att"  with  infinitives  is  in  Swedish  omitted  much  more  often  than  to  in 
English;  see  §  24-2,  1.— As  in  English,  "att"    (=  that)  is  frequently    omitted, 
particularly  in  the  spoken  language. 


44  THE  ADJECTIVE 

lida  (led)  suffer  svar  hard,  difficult,  severe 

ligga  (sing,  -er)  lie,  be  tro    (-dde)  think,  believe 

situated  tycka  (-te)  think  (=  be  of  the 

nej  no  opinion} ,  fancy ;  tycka  om'1 ///[•<? 

rida  (red)  rwk  tysk   German;   -a  //*<?  German 

son  &?«  language;    pa  -a  /«  German; 

stad  «Yy,  Aw»  en  tysk  (2)  a  German 

svart  £/£<:/£  vem  who? ,  whom? 

svensk  Swedish;    -a   ///^  vit  z£'/«Y<? 

Swedish  language;  pa  van  friend 

-a     m      Swedish;     en  vanin'na  (1)    (woman}   friend 

svensk    (2)    a  Swede 

EXERCISE  V. 

A,  i.  X.r  det  stora  huset  ditt? — Ja,  det  ar  mitt. 
2.  Sveriges  flagga  ar  bla  och  gul.  3.  Jag  tycker  om 
den  svenska  flaggan.  4.  Tycker  ni  icke,  att  den  ar 
mycket  vacker?  5.  Min  van  byggde  det  hb'ga  huset. 
6.  Tror  du,  att  din  vaninnas  mor  kommer2  i  dag?  7.  Gote- 
borg3  ar  en  stor  stad.  Var  ligger  Goteborg?  8.  Skrev 
du  ett  brev  pa  tyska?  9.  Tycken  I  om  att  bo  i  staden  ? 
10.  Var  bar  du  den  gula  rosen? —  Den  ligger  pa  det 
vita  bordet.  n.  Vi  tyckte,  att  de  talade  svenska.  12.  Vem 
byggde  bron  over  an?  13.  Tycker  ni  icke,  att  denna 
blomma  ar  vacker?  14.  Den  stora  flaggan  ligger  pa  din 
lararinnas  bord.  15.  Tyckte  ni,  att  staden  var  vacker? 
16.  Jag  trodde,  att  ban  var  var  van.  17.  Modern  trodde, 
att  hennes  son  var  sjuk.  18.  Vi  kopte  de  vita  duvorna 
i  dag  pa  morgonen.  19.  De  vita  fjarilarna  sitta  pa 
blommorna.  20.  Deras  son  led  av  en  mycket  svar  sjuk- 
dom.  21.  Gossarna  redo  pa  den  svarta  hasten. 

1  Observe  the    order   in:   "Jag  tycker  icke  om  eula.  blommor."     "Tycker  du  om 
gula  blommor?" 

2  Cf.  page  39,  foot-note. 

3  Gotebor'g,  the  cit3"  of  Gothenburg. 


V  THE  ADJECTIVE  45 

B.  i.  His  mother  was  not  there.  2.  Did  the  boys  not 
write  a  long  letter?  3.  Did  you  live  in  the  city?  4.  The 
red  flowers  grew  in  the  woods.  5.  I  picked  the  red  rose 
this  morning1.  6.  Do  you  not  think  that  the  Swedish 
flag  is  beautiful?  7.  The  birds  are  flying  under  the 
bridge.  8.  Who  bought  the  red  slippers?  9.  The  girls 
were  writing  a  letter  to  the  Swedish  princess.  10.  Do 
you  like  the  white  flowers?  —  No,  but  I  like  the  red 
roses,  ii.  Do  you  think  that  their  mother  is  at  home 
to-day?  12.  The  lamp  is  on  the  yellow  table.  13.  My 
sister's  friend  does  not  speak  Swedish.  She  speaks  only 
German.  14.  The  blue  flag  is  on  the  bridge.  15.  Is  the 
large  lake  beautiful?  16.  The  German  gentleman  wrote 
a  letter  in  Swedish.  17.  Who  built  the  large  yellow 
house?  1 8.  They  lived  in  this  parish.  19.  Were  you 
speaking  German?  —  No,  we  were  speaking  Swedish. 
20.  We  bought  the  yellow  birds  in  the  city.  21.  The 
high  house  is  hers.  Do  you  think  that  her  house 
is  pretty? 

1  Cf.  18  in  Exercise  A. 


46  THIRD  DECLENSION 

LESSON  VI. 
THIRD  DECLENSION. 

87-  The  Third  Declension  (plur.  -er)  contains  nouns  of 
both  genders,  but  primarily  nouns  of  common  gender. 
Almost  all  neuter1  nouns  of  this  declension  are  of  foreign 
origin,  as  are  also  very  many  of  the  nouns  of  common 
gender.  To  this  declension  belong2: 

(1)  Many  monosyllabic  nouns  (almost  all   of    common 
gender)  ending  in  a  consonant;  as,  bok  book ,  fa rg  color, 
stad  city,  van  friend,  vin  (n.)  wine. 

(2)  Many  nouns  of  more  than  one   syllable    ending  in 
various  suffixes3;  as,  handelse  occurrence,  konstnar*  artist, 
solda't  soldier,  mdnad  month,  bageri'  (n.)  bakery,    muse' - 
um  (n.)  museum. 

Note.  —  i.  Nouns  ending  in  unstressed  -e  drop  this  vo\vel 
before  adding  -er;  as,  biblioteka'rie  librarian,  plur.  bibhoteka' ri cr ; 
handelse  occurrence,  plur.  handelser;  fiende  enemy,  plur.  jicndcr. 

2.  The  few  nouns  of  this  declension  that  end   in    unstressed    -el, 
-er  drop  the  vowel  of  the  suffix  upon  adding  -er;  as,  tnuskel  mus- 
cle, plur.  muskier;  neger  negro,  plur.  negrer. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  -ium  and  -eum  drop  -um  before  adding   -er; 
as,  laborato' rium  laboratory,  plur.  laborato' rier ;  muse'um  museum, 
plur.  muse'er. 

1  Of  the  neuters  that  do  not  belong  to  this  declension,  those  ending  in  a 
vowel  belong  to  the  Fourth  Declension,  and  those  ending  in  a  consonant,   to 
the  Fifth. 

2  Some  nouns  otherwise  having  no  plural,  or,  in  a  few  instances,  having 
a  plural  according  to  another  declension,  form  aplural  ending  in-er  denoting 
"kinds  of",  "brands  of"  in  the  mercantile  sense;  as,  i>in  (n.)  wine,  te  (n.)  tea, 
fro  (n.;  also  4)  seed. 

3  The   commonest    suffixes   are:  (1)  common-gender,   -else,   -hct,  -skat,  -ati, 
-nad,   -niir,    beside  a  large  variety   of  suffixes  in    words   of  foreign    origin; 
(2)  neuter  (foreign  origin),  -eri',  -e'um,  -ium.  Nouns  ending  in  -/  -i'  are  partly 
neuter,  partly  of  common  gender. 

4  Konstniir  may,   though   less   frequently,    also   be   pronounced    with   the 
stress  on  the  final  syllable. 


VI  THIRD  DECLENSION  47 

4.  A  number  of  words1  (chiefly  monosyllabic )  of  this  declension 
modify  (see  §  u)  the    root-vowel;  as,    hand  hand,    plur.   hander; 
son  son,  plur.  soner;  bonde  peasant,  plur.  bonder. 

5.  In  a  few  words  a  long  vowel  of  the  singular  is   shortened   in 
the  plural;  as,  get  goat,  plur.  getter;  not  nut,  plur.   natter.    Some 
have   both   shortening  and  modification  of  the  root-vowel;  as,    bok 
book,  plur.  backer;  fot  foot,  plur.  fatter. 

6.  A    few   loan-words,    especially   all    that   end    in  -or,  shift   the 
stress  in  the  plural;  as,  dok'tor  doctor,   plur.  dokto'rer;  profes'sor 
professor,    plur.  professo'rer. 

7.  Special    attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the   Third  Declen- 
sion contains  a  very  large    number  of  loan-words.     Most  couinion- 
gender  nouns  of  foreign  origin  in  Swedish,  and  some  neuters,  form 
their  plural  with  -er.     If  of  more  than  one  syllable  —  and  most  of  the 
nouns  of  foreign    origin    have    more    than    one   syllable  —  they  are 
generally  stressed  on  some  syllable  other  than   the   first;  as,   arm£ 
army,  biblioteka'rie  librarian,  profes'sor  professor,    solda't  soldier, 
bageri'  (n.)  bakery,  muse'um    (n.)    museum.      Accordingly,    most 
common-gender  nouns  that  do  not  stress  the  first   syllable,   belong 
to  the  Third  Declension. 

88.  DEFINITE  FORM.  The  definite  singular  adds  -en 
(-«)  or  -et  (-/)  according  to  the  gender;  the  definite 
plural  adds  -na. 

Note.  —  i.  Nouns  ending  in  -el,  -er,  -or  add -n;  as,  muskeln\h& 
muscle,  negern  the  negro,  profes'sorn  the  professor. 

2.  Common-gender  nouns  ending  in  unstressed    -ez    add    -n;    as, 
biblioteka'rie •,    def.    biblioteka'rlen;    handelse,    def.    handelsen.  — 
Common-gender    nouns    of    more    than   one  syllable   ending   in    a 
stressed  vowel  add  either  -en  or  -n;  as,  arm?" army,  def.  arme'(e)n; 
fotografi'  photograph,  def.  fotografi'(e)n.     See  §  93,  i. 

3.  The  very  few   neuters   of   this   declension   that   have   an    un- 
stressed final   vowel,    add    -t;    as,  fangelse3  prison,  def.  fangehet. 
—Neuter  nouns  ending   in  a   stressed   vowel    add   -et;    as,    bageri' 
bakery,  def.  bageri' et. 

1  For  a  complete  list  see  Phonology  §  33. 

2  Note  also  the  irregular  histo'ria  history,  story,  def.  hisio'rien.  plur.  histo'rier. 

3  With  very  few  exceptions,   words    with  the    suffix    -else   have    common 
gender.     See   page  4»i,    foot-note   3. 


48 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


VI 


4.  Nouns  ending  in  -ium  and  -eum  drop  -um  before  adding 
-et;1  as,  laborato'rium,  def.  laborato'riet;  muse'utn,  def.  muse'et. 

89-  Examples  of  this  declension  are:  farg  color,  van 
friend,  bok  book,  vin  (n.)  wine,  manad  month,  handelse 
occurrence,  muskel  muscle,  solda't  soldier,  doktor  doctor, 
fotografi'  photograph,  bageri'  (n.)  bakery,  muse'um  (n.) 
museum. 


INDEFINITE 

DEFINITE 

INDEFINITE 

DEFINITE 

Sing,  farg 
Plur.  fdrger 

fargen 
fdrgerna 

van 
vanner* 

vannen 

I'dnnerna 

Sing,   bok 
Plur.    backer 

boken 
bbckerna 

vin  (n.) 
viner 

vinet 
vinerna 

Sing,   manad 
Plur.    manader 

manaden 
manaderna 

handelse 
ha  ndelser 

hdndelsen 
hdndelserna 

Sing,  muskel 
Plur.   muskier 

muskeln 
musklerna 

solda't 
solda'ter 

sol  da'  ten 
solda'terna 

Sing,  doktor 
Plur.  dokto'rer 

doktorn 
dokto'rer  na 

fotografi' 
fotografi  '  er 

fotografi'  (e^n 
fotografi'  erna 

Sing,  bageri'  (\\.} 
Plur.   bageri'er 

bageri'  et 
bageri'erna 

muse'um(\\.^) 
muse'er 

muse'et 
muse'  erna 

90.  ORTHOGRAPHY:  van,  vdnner,  vannen  (§6,  note  i; 
Phonology  §  18  b).  —  "Upsala"  is  in  Sweden  usually 
spelled  Uppsala,  but  sometimes  Upsala. — In  words  of 
foreign  origin  ending  in  stressed  final  e,  and  in  inflec- 
tional forms  of  such  words,  the  position  of  the  stress  is 
always  indicated,  the  mark  being  directly  above  the  c; 
as,  armS,  arm/(e)n,  arm/er.  Similarly,  in  some  proper 
names;  as,  Tegner,  Linne. 

1  Or  they  may  remain  unchanged;  as.  det  anato'miska  must'iim  the  anatom- 
ical museum. 

2  As  the  vowel  ofriin  is  short,  the  change  to  a  double  consonant  '-mriiKner 
is  not  parallel  to  that  ofbak:  backer.     See  §  90. 


VI  THIRD  DECLENSION  49 

91-  PRONUNCIATION:  bonde  (§  9,  3  a);  muse'um  (§  8,  2, 
note);  get  (§  14);  oni  (§  6,  note  i). — For  the  quantity  in 
negrer,  etc.,  see  Phonology  §  14  B  2  b.  Observe  the 
change  of  the  vowel  in  quality  as  well  as  in  quantity  in 
not,  nbtter;  doktor,  dokto'rer  (second  0) ;  profes'sor,  pro- 
fesso'rer  (second  o). 

92.  ACCENT:  (i)  Monosyllables  of  the  Third  Declension 
have  the  acute  accent  in  the  def.  sing.;  as,  fargen,  bokcn, 
z'inet. 

In  the  plural  most  of  these  have  the  grave  accent;  as, 
fdrger,  vdnner.  But  all  nouns  that  modify  or  shorten  the 
root-vowel  of  the  singular  in  forming  the  plural  (except 
soner),  and  a  few  other  nouns,  have  the  acute  accent; 
as,  backer,  stdder,  getter,  natter.  Even  bonde,  which  in 
the  singular  has  the  grave  accent,  has  the  acute  in 
the  plural,  bonder.  Many  nouns  have  either  the  grave 
or  the  acute  accent,  generally  in  different  localities; 
as,  I'incr,  saker. 

As  the  addition  of  the  definite  article  does  not  change 
the  nature  of  the  accent  of  the  form  to  which  it 
is  added,  sbnerna  has  the  grave  accent,  bockerna,  the 
acute,  etc. 

(2)  Nouns  stressed  on  the  last    syllable   in    the   indef. 
sing,  have  the  acute  accent  both  in    the   def.    sing,    and 
in    the    indef.    and    def.    plural;    as,    soldo,' ten,    solda'ter, 
soldo! tcrna;  fotografi' en ,  fotografi' er ,  fotograflerna;  bageri'et, 
bageri'er,  bageri'erna. 

(3)  All  nouns  of    the  Third    Declension  ending  in  -el, 
-er  have  the  acute  accent  in  all  forms,  indef.    and   def., 
both  singular  and  plural1;   as,  muskel,  muskier  (jia) ;  neger, 
negrer  {no) . 

1  On  the  contrary,  nouns  with  these  suffixes  belonging  to  the  Second  De- 
clension have  the  grave  accent  in  the  plural;  see  §  74,  2  end. 


50  THIRD  DECLENSION  VI 

(4)  Profes'sor  has  the  grave  accent,  butprofesso'rer,  the 
acute.     Doktor  may  have  either  the    acute    or   the    grave 
accent  in  the  singular;    in   the    plural     it    has   the   acute 

(dokto'rer} . 

(5)  Of  the  words  mentioned  in  this  lesson,  neger,  musket 
and  Amc'rika  have  the  acute  accent. — Doktor  and  laborato'- 
rium  may  have  either  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent.    Muse- 
um usually  has  the  acute  accent,  but  sometimes  the  grave. 

93.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  Forms  like  fotografi'en  occur 
primarily  in  the  written  language;  those  like  fotografi'n, 
primarily  in  the  spoken  language.  Except  in  the  case 
of  those  ending  in  -z,  the  shorter  form  is  frequently  used 
also  in  the  written  language. 

(2)  Neuters    ending    in    a    stressed    vowel    frequently 
have  only  -t  in  the    def.  form. 

(3)  In  easy  speech  brbd  is  pronounced  brb.  —  Hand  is 
in  easy  speech  pronounced  hann,  which    is   used    also   as 
the  def.,  for  handen.  —  The  def.  sing,  of  manad  is   not 
infrequently    shortened    to     mdnan,    and    the    plural    to 
manar,  but  this  less  often. 

VOCABULARY . 

Note. —  The  following  nouns  belonging  to  the  Third  Declension 
have  occurred  in  previous  vocabularies:  bok,  farg,  son,  stad,  van. 

arme1  (3)  army  fiende  (3)  enemy 

bageri'   ».    (3)   bakery  fot   (3)  foot 

bibliote'k  n.  library  fotografi'   (3)  photograph 

biblioteka'rie  (3)  librarian  fangelse  n.   (3)  prison 

bonde  (3)  peasa7it  for  for,   to 

brod  n.   bread  get  (3)  goat 

doktor  (3)  doctor  hand  (3)  hand 

dricka    (sing,    -er)    drink  handelse  (3)  occurrence 

1   See  §  90. 


VI  THIRD  DECLENSION  51 

konstnar1  (3)  artist  not  (3)   nut 

laborato'rium;z.(3)  labora-  ovan2    (3)      (personal}    enemy 

tory  profes'sor  (3)  professor 

muse'um  n.   (3)  museum  pa  on,  in 

muskel  (3)  muscle  sak    (3)  thing,  matter,   affair 

manad  (3)   month  solda't  (3)  soldier 

neger  (3)   negro  som3  who,  whom,  that,  which 

nu  now  vin  n,   (3)  wine 

EXERCISE  VI. 

A.  i.  Konungen  bar  manga  soldater  i  armen.  2.  De 
svenska  bonderna  ha  icke  manga  getter.  3.  Doktorn 
och  konstnaren  dricka  vin.  4.  Professorn,  som  du  tala- 
de  oin,  ar  pa  laboratoriet.  5.  Bibliotekarien  och  pro- 
fessorerna  voro  vanner,  men  nu  aro  de  ovanner.  6.  Ne- 
gern  beriittade  handelsen  for  fienderna.  7.  Soldaterna 
kopte  brod  i  bageriet.  8.  Var  voro  notterna  ?  9.  Stock- 
holm, Goteborg  och  Malmo  aro  svenska  stader.  10.  Bi- 
blioteket  i  Uppsala  ar  stort.  n.  Den  tyska  herrn  har 
bade  svenska  och  tyska  bocker.  12.  Fienderna  redo  till 
staden  pa  bondernas  hastar.  13.  Doktorn  ar  pa  museet. 
14.  Fotografien  ligger  pa  bordet.  15.  Fienderna  voro  i  sta- 
den en  manad.  16.  Musklerna  i  handerna  aro  icke  stora. 
17.  Den  sjuka  kvinnan  ar  hos  doktorn.  18.  Bonderna 
ha  icke  manga  bocker.  19.  Negrerna  i  Amerika4  bo  i 
staderna.  20.  Gossar  och  flickor  tycka  om  fotografier. 
21.  Professorns  bocker  aro  hos  bibliotekarien. 

1  See  page  46,  foot-note  4. 

2  The  prefix  "o-"  (together  with  "in-",  "im-")  in  Swedish  corresponds  to 
the  Eniilish  nn-    (in-,  im-).     The  prefix  "o-"  is  stressed.     Further  examples 

obebodd    uninhabited,     odelbar     indivisible,    omojlig 


52  THIRD  DECLENSION  VI 

B.  i.  The  prison  in  this  city  is  not  beautiful.  2.  The 
peasants  picked  nuts  in  the  woods.  3.  The  professor 
was  in  the  library  and  the  doctor  was  in  the  laboratory. 
4.  The  king  has  a  horse  which  is  very  beautiful.  5.  The 
birds  are  sitting  on  the  girl's  hand.  6.  The  soldiers  are 
drinking  wine.  7.  The  peasants  are  giving  the  enemies 
bread.  8.  The  boy's  hands  and  feet  are  not  large.  9.  The 
professors  are  not  in  the  city  in  the  summer.  10.  The 
enemy  does  not  like  our  armies,  n.  The  librarian  and 
the  doctor  are  enemies.  12.  The  negroes  are  giving  the 
boys  nuts.  13.  Do  the  women  buy  bread  in  the  bak- 
eries? 14.  Sweden  does  not  have  many  large  cities. 

15.  The     artist     and   his   friends   wrere   in  the  museum. 

16.  Is    the   photograph    beautiful?     17.    Where   are    the 
laboratories?     18.  The  bakeries  in  this  city  are  not  large. 


VII  FOURTH  DECLENSION  53 

LESSON  VII. 

FOURTH  DECLENSION. 

94-  The  Fourth   Declension     (plur.  -n)    contains    only 
neuter    nouns.     To   this   declension   belong  most  neuters 
ending  in  a  vowel;  namely, 

(1)  A  few    monosyllabic    neuters    ending    in  a  vowel; 
as,  bi  bee,  fro  seed,  kna  knee. 

(2)  Neuters  of  more  than  one   syllable    ending    in    an 
unstressed  vowel1  (chiefly    -<?);    as,    rike    kingdom,    apple 
apple,  forhal'lande  circumstance,  hjarta  heart,  pia'no  piano. 

95-  DEFINITE  FORM.     The   def.    sing,    adds    -et  or  -t; 
the  def.  plur.  adds  -a2. 

Note.  —  I.  Nouns  ending  in  an  unstressed  vowel  add  -//  as, 
apple,  def.  applet;  hjarta,  clef,  hjartat;  pia'no,  def  .  pia'not.  —  Those 
ending  in  a  stressed  vowel  add  -et  or  -/;  as,  kna,  def.  kna(e)t. 
See  §  105,  i. 

2.  Monosyllables  may  also,  though  less  often    now    than  before, 
form   the   def.    plur.    by    dropping3   -«   and    adding    -en;    as,    bien 
(=  bina}. 

3.  Of  hjarta  heart,  there  is  no  def.  plur.  form    in    common   use. 
As  far   as   possible,    the    written    language    avoids    expressing    the 
definite  meaning  of  the  plural  of  this  word,  but  it  employs  hjdrtana 
(see  §  105,  2)  if  the  def.  plur.  must  be  expressed. 

96-  Examples  of     this    declension    are:    bi    bee,    apple 
apple,  hjarta  heart,  pia'no  piano. 

1  There  are  few  exceptions,  the  leading  ones  being  ora,  oga  (§  110),  fdneel- 
ie  (3  Decl.1,  kilo  (5  Decl.),  and  a  few  foreign  -words  ending  in  -ma.  —  Neuters 
of  more  than  one  syllable  that  have  a  stressed  final  vowel,  belong  to  the 
Third  Declension;  see  page  46,  foot-note  3. 


r        ecenson;  see  page        ,    oo-noe     . 

2  Observe    that  the  resulting  -na,    while  here  embracing  also  the  plural 
ending,    is  identical  in  form  with  the  def.  article  of  the  plural  in  the  first 
three  declensions. 

3  In  reality  «  is  not  dropped;  the  def.  form  in  question  is  based  on  an 
older  plural  form  bi  (identical  with  the  singular),  to   which  -en  was  added; 


54  STRONG  VERES  VII 

INDEFINITE  DEFINITE         INDEFINITE     DEFINITE 

Sing,     bi  Met  apple  applet 

Plur.     bin  bina   (bien*}       dpplen  dpplena 

Sing,     hjdrta  hjdrtat  pia'no  pia'not 

Plur.     hjartan          \Jijdrtand\  pia'non  pia'uona 

STRONG  VERBS. 

97-  In  Swedish,  as  in  English,  there  is  a  great  variety 

of  vowel-change  in    the    formation    of   the  past  tense  of 

strong  verbs1     (cf.  §  81  and  note).     The  most  numerously 

represented   systems   of   vowel-change    in    Swedish    are:2 

PRESENT  PAST 

(1)  long  i  long  e 

(2)  short  i  short  a;  plur.,  short   n 

(3)  uty  b 
Examples: 

(1)  skriva  write  skrev 

(2)  finna  find  fann,  \A\\r.funno 

(3)  bjuda  offer  bjbd 
sjunga  sing  sjbng 
flyga  fly  flog 

98.  All  strong  verbs  that  have  z,  u  or  y  as  the  root-vowel 
in  the  infinitive3  (and  in  the  pres.  sing.),  form  the  past 
tense  according  to  the  systems  given  in  §  97.  To  this 
there  are  only  two  exceptions:  giva  give,  past  gav,  past 
plur.  g&vo;  and  Hgga  lie,  past  lag-  These  two  verbs, 
and  those  having  in  the  infinitive  some  other  root-vowel 
than  z',  u  or  y,  form  the  past  tense  according  to  various 

1  E.  g.,   in   English:    run,    ran;    eat,  ate;    fall,    fell;    shoot,  shot;   break, 
broke;  tear,  tore;  bite,  bit;  drive,  drove;    bind,    bound;    sing,    sang;    give, 
gave. 

2  A  more  complete  account  is  given  in  Lesson  XVI. 

3  For  further  illustrations  see  the  note  preceding  the  vocabulary  of    this 
lesson. 


VII  FOURTH  DECLENSION  55 

systems.  As  each  of  the  last  named  systems  is  represent- 
ed by  only  from  one  to  three  or  four  verbs,  these  can 
best  be  learned  individually. 

99.  The  past  tense  of  all  strong  verbs    is    conjugated 
like  skrev  in  §  81.     Notice,  however,  that  in  system    (2) 
the  root-vowel  of  the  past  plur.  differs  from  that  of  the 
past   sing.     This   is    the   case   also    with    a    few    of    the 
individual  verbs  referred  to  in  §  98,  end;  as,  giva,    past 
gav,  past   plur.  gavo.     Cf.  var,  plur.  voro,  in  §  71. 

Sing,  jag,  etc.,  skrev  fann  bjbd  sjbng  flog 

Plur.    vi  skrevo  funno  bjbdo  sjbngo  flbgo 

I  skreven  funnen  bjbden  sjbngen  flbgen 

de  skrevo  funno  bjbdo  sjbngo  flbgo 

NEGATIVES. 

100.  Swedish  has  three  words  meaning  "not":  icke,  ej 
and  inte.     The  written  language  employs  icke,  frequently 
interspersing    ej.1     The   spoken    language    regularly    uses 
inte,  which  also  occurs  in  the  written  language,  particu- 
larly in  dialog. 

101.  POSITION  OF,XNEGATIVES.  In  principal  clauses  the 
negative  is  placed  after  the  finite  form    of    the   verb,    as 
in  English,  but  in  subordinate  clauses  it  is  placed  before 
the  finite  form.     Ex.:     Han  dr  icke   hemma.     He   is  not 
at  home.     Hon  sdger,  aft  han  icke  dr  hemma.     She    says 
that  he  is  not  at  home. 

102.  ORTHOGRAPHY:   komma,  kom,  kommo  (§  6,  note  i; 
Phonology  §   18  a).  —   Tegner  (§  90,  end). 

103.  PRONUNCIATION:  /ova,  sova  (§  9,  3  b)  ;  hjarta  (§  16); 
kna    (§  17);    Tegnlr  (§  19,  2  c);  liem,    Sven  (§  6,  note  i). 

1  Not  infrequently  both  icke  and  ej  occur  in  the  same  sentence.  Ex.:  Detta 
marker  liitt  den.  som  farso'ker  att  fora  ett  samtal  med  naffon.  som  han  icke  ser.  och 
som  ej  ser  honom.  This  will  readily  be  observed  by  one  -who  tries  to  carry  on 
a  conversation  with  someone  whom  he  does  not  see  and  who  does  not  see  him. 


56  FOURTH  DECLENSION  VII 

In  saga,  g  usually  =//  in  Holgersson,  g—j  or  g  (as  in 
g&).  Observe  the  change  in  the  initial  consonant-sound 
in  giva,  gav. 

104.  ACCENT:     (r)  Monosyllables  of  the  Fourth  Declen- 
sion have  the  acute  accent  both  in  the  def.  sing,  and  def . 
plur.;  as,    bief,   bina    (bien). — Words   of   more    than    one 
syllable  have  the  grave  accent  in  all  forms  (as  rike,  riket, 
riken,    rikena),  with  the  exception  of   a    few  words    (as 
fbrh&riande,  pia'no,  which  latter  may  also  have  the  grave 
accent;  observe  that  both  of  these  words  are  stressed  on 
some  syllable  other  than  the  first). 

(2)  Of  the  words  mentioned  in  this  lesson,  vatten ,  fbr- 
hal'lande,  Holgersson  and  Fritiof  have  the  acute  accent; 
pia'no  has  either  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent. 

105.  COLLOQUIALISMS:    (i)  Forms  like  knaet  occur  pri- 
marily in  the  written  language;  those  like  kndt,  primarily 
in  the  spoken  language. 

(2)  In    the   spoken   language,  hjartana    is  used  as  the 
def.  plur.  of  hjarta. 

(3)  The  spoken  language,  not  employing  plural    verb- 
forms  (cf.  §  53,   i)  has  no  vowel-change  such  as  that  of 
fann,  plur.  funno. 

(4)  In  the  spoken  language,  sa  may  be  used  for  sade. 

(5)  Aven    belongs    to    the   written    language;    likewise 
ock,  which  is  synonymous  with  it.     In  place  of  these,  ock- 
sa1,  which  also  occurs  in  the  written  language,  is  used  in 
speaking.     In  easy  speech,   med  (pronounced  ma)  is  em- 
ployed beside  ocksa.     When  these  adverbs  modify  another 
word,  aven  is  placed   before   the   word;  ocksa,    before    or 
after  (the  latter  primarily  in  the  spoken    language);    ock 
and  med,  after. 

1   Acute  or  grave  accent. 


VII 


FOURTH  DECLENSION 


57 


Summary: 


Written 
ock  (after) 
dven  (before) 
ocksa  (before) 


Spoken 


ocksa  (after) 


Easy  Speech 


ocksa  (after) 
med   (after) 

(6)   In  easy  speech,  god  and  trad  are  pronounced  go,  tra. 
VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  "Rike",  belonging  to  the  Fourth  Declension,  has  occurred 
in  a  previous  vocabulary. 

The  strong  verbs  that  have  been  given  in  previous  vocabularies 
are:1  lida  (past,  led),  rida  (red),  skriva  (skrev),  sitta  (satt,  plur. 
sutto),  dricka  (drack,  plur.  drucko),  sjunga  (sjong),  flyga  (flog), 
giva  (gav,  plur.  gavo),  ligga  (lag),  vara  (var,  plur.  voro),  komma 
(koin2,  plur.  kommo). 

arbeta   (-ade)  work 
arbete  n.   (4)  work 


hjarta  n.   (4)  heart 
halla  (holl)    hold,  keep 
inte  not 
jo5  yes 

jord  (2)  earth,  ground 
kna  n.   (4)  knee 
lova  (-ade)  promise 
lasa  (-te)   read 
lofte  n.   (4)  promise 
minne  n.  (4)  memory,  remi- 
niscence 

natt  (3,  plur.  natter)  night; 
om  -en  during  the  night; 
i  uatt6  to-night 

1  Learn  the  past  tense  of  these  verbs  as  here  given. 

2  Observe  that  while  "komma"  and  "sova"  do  not  change  the  vowel  in 
the  past  tense,  they  ha  ve  the  other  characteristics  of  a  strong  verb;  note  also 
"vara". 

3  See  §28,  note  1. 

4  See  page  46,  foot-note  2. 

5  "Jo"  is  used  in  place  of  "j  a"  in  answer  to  a  question  containing  a  negative. 

6  Never  used  with  the  meaning  of  "this  evening",  as  is  the  Eng.  to-night. 


barn  n.3  child 

bi  n.3  (4)  bee 

bjuda  (bjod)  offer,  invite 

da  then,  when 

ej  not 

finna  (fann,  plur.  funno) 
find 

fro4   ii.   (4)  seed 

forhal'lande  n.  (4)  circum- 
stance, condition 

god  good 

liem  n.  home;  adv..  home 


58  FOURTH  DECLENSION  VII 

naste  n.   (4)  nest  saga,  (irregular; -er,  past  sade) 

ock  also  say 

ocksa  also  trad  n.  tree 

pia'no  n.   (4)  piano  r        vatten  n.  -water 

resa  (-te)  travel,  go  apple  n.   (4)   apple 

sova  (sov1)  sleep  aven  also 

EXERCISE  VII. 

A.  i.  Han   lovade    att    skriva,    men    ban    holl    icke 
loftet.     2.  Han  arbetade  om  natten  och   sov   om    dagen. 
3.  Konstnaren    sade,    att   ban    icke    arbetade    i  dag    pa. 
morgonen.     4.  Frona    lago    i   jorden.     5.  Duvorna   flogo 
hem    om     aftouen.     6.  Faglarna     ha    nasten    i    skogen. 
7.  Karl  och  Johan2    funno    nastena.     8.  Forhallandena  i 
Sverige  voro   svara,    da    Johansson    reste    till    Amerika. 
9.  Bonderna  bjodo  soldaterna  brod  och  vatten.     10.  Dessa 
gossar  tycka  om  pianon.     n.  Bockerna  lago  pa  ditt  bord. 
12.  Gossarna  och  flickorna   sutto  i    skolan   och   laste  om. 
Nils  Holgersson.     13.  Fienderna  lago  i  skogen  och  sovo. 

14.  Skrev   icke  professorn   ett   stort   arbete  om  Sverige? 

15.  Vi    tycka,  att  pianot  ar  vackert.     16.  Han  sade,  att 
fageln  icke  var  i  nastet.     17.  Sade  gossen,  att   han    icke 
tycker  om   att   resa?     18.    Gossarna   drucko   vatten.     De 
gavo  aven   hastarna   vatten   att   dricka.     19.  Sven    sade, 
att  han  icke  tycker  om  att  plocka  notter. 

B.  i.  He  says  that  the  work  is  not   difficult.     2.  He 
liked   to    read    good    books   when  he  was  small.     3.  Did 
these    good    apples   grow   on   this   tree?     4.  The    nights 
were  very  long  then.     5.  Where  did    the    boys   find   the 
nuts?     6.  The  bees  were  sitting  on  the  flowers.     7.  The 
child  was  sitting  on    the   doctor's   knees.     8.  Do   butter- 
flies  have   hearts?     9.  Have    you    many   books   on    your 

1  See  page  57,  foot-note  2.  2  John. 


VII  FOURTH  DECLENSION  .      59 

table?  10.  The  piano  is  both  large  and  beautiful,  n.  I 
thought  that  he  came  home  this  morning.  12.  Do 
pigeons  have  nests  in  the  woods?  13.  The  apples  are 
good.  14.  The  boys  were  reading  Tegner's  works  in 
school1.  They  like  to  read  "Fritiofs  Saga".  15.  He 
had  many  reminiscences  of2  Sweden  to  talk  about. 
16.  Are  the  apples  on  this  tree  yours?  17.  They  prom- 
ised to  work  to-day.  Did  they  keep  this  promise? 
1 8.  The  seed  is  very  large.  19.  Birds  like  seeds. 

20.  The  boy  has  a  nest  which  he  found    in    the    woods. 

21.  His  home  is  also  yours. 


1    See  12  in  Exercise  A.  2   Use  "fr&n". 


60  FIFTH  DECLENSION  VIII 

LESSON  VIII. 

FIFTH  DECLENSION. 

106-  In  the  Fifth  Declension  (plural  without  ending)  the 
indef.  plur.  is  identical  in  form  with  the  indef.  sing.,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  words  in  (3)  below,  which  modify  the 
root-vowel.  Compare  English  "sheep" ,  "swine",  "deer". 
To  this  declension,  which  contains  nouns  of  both  genders 
(primarily  neuters),  belong: 

(1)  Almost   all1  neuters  ending    in    a    consonant;    as, 
bord   table,    hus    house,   fbnster   window,    smultron  wild 
strawberry,  genus  gender. 

(2)  Nouns  of  common  gender  ending  in  -are  and  -ande; 
as,  larare  teacher,  resande  traveler,  ordforande  chairman. 

(3)  A  few  nouns  of  common  gender  that   have  vowel- 
modification  (see§n)    in    the    plural2:    broder   brother, 
fader  father,  man  man,  gas  goose,  mus  mouse,  lus  louse, 
plur.   broder,  fader,  man,  gass,  moss,    loss    (the    last    two 
with  irregular  vowel-modification). 

(4)  Nouns    (chiefly     of    common    gender)    indicating 
measure3;  as,  mil  mile,  fofi  foot,  turn6  inch,  meter  meier, 
kilo  (n.)  kilogram.     Man  has  plur.  man6  when    denoting 
a  group  of  persons  (primarily  soldiers)   thought   of  as  a 
whole;  as,  fern  tusen  man  five  thousand  men,   en    har  pa 
10,000  (read  tio  tusen}  man  an  army  of  10,000  men. 


1  The  Third  Declension  contains  a  small  number   of  neuters   ending  in  a 
consonant,  partly  monosyllables,  and  partly  words  of  more   than   one   syl- 
lable; see  §  87,  1 ,  and  page  46,  foot-note  3.     See,  in  addition,  §  111. 

2  Cf.  Eng.:  brother,  brethren;  man,   men;  goose,  geese. 

3  Cf.   Eng.:   "I  put  in  ten  ton  of  coal  last  month." 

4  \Vheny^  does  not  indicate  measure,  it  belongs  to  the  Third  Declension, 
plur.  fdtter. 

5  Tutu  may  be  either  of  common  or  of  neuter  gender. 

6  When  individuals  are  thought  of,  the  plur.  man  is  used. 


VIII  FIFTH  DECLENSION  6 1 

(5)  Foreign  nouns,  including  names  of  peoples,  ending 
in  -er  (common  gender);  as,  bota'niker  botanist,  egyp'tier 
Egyptian. 

Note.  —  i.  The  long  vowel  of  the  sing.,  besides  being  modified, 
is  shortened  in  the  plur.  of  gas,  plur.  gass;  mus,  plur.  moss;  /us, 
plur.  loss. 

2.  Broder  and  fader  are  generally  contracted  to  bror  and  far  in 
the  indef .  sing.1  —  Words  in  -are,  when  used  before  a  proper  noun, 
usually  drop  the  -e ;  as,  skomakar  (==  shoe-maker)  Karlsson  (some- 
times, skomakare  Karlsson]  Mr.  Carlson.  But  in  the  case  of 
kejsare  emperor,  the  -e  is  always  dropped  before  a  noun;  as,  kejsar 
Wilhelm.  Cf.  §  68,  note  5. 

107.  DEFINITE  FORM.  The  definite  singular  ends  in 
-et  (-/)  or  -en  (-«),  according  to  the  gender.  The  def- 
inite plural  ends  in  -en  or  -na.  The  plural  form  -en  is 
used  for  both  genders  when  a  consonant  precedes,  except 
that  common-gender  nouns  ending  in  -er  add  -na.  Al- 
so the  nouns  ending  in  a  vowel  add  -na.  Ex.:  husen, 
smultronen,  mdnncn,  gassen,  brbderna,  bota' nikerna ,  ord- 
forandena. 

Note.  —  i.  Common-gender  nouns  ending  in  -e  and  -erz  add  -n 
in  the  def.  sing.;  as,  lararen,  brodern,  metern,  bota'nikern. 

2.  The  few  neuters  ending    in   an    unstressed   vowel    add   -t;    as, 
kilot  the  kilogram. 

3.  Neuters  ending  in  -us  employ  the  indef.  sing,  and  plur.  also  as 
the  def.  sing,  and  plur.;  as,  genus  gender,  indef.  and  def.  singular  and 
plural3. 

4.  Almost  all*  neuters  ending  in  -el,  -en,  -er  drop  the  vowel  of  the 
suffix  before  adding  the  sing,  -et  or  the  plur.  -en;  as,  hagel,  hail,  def. 

1  But  the  def.  sins,  and  the  plural  (indef.  and  def.)  are  never  so  contract- 
ed u1.  S  107,  note  1,  and  foot-note  2  on  this  page).  See  the  paradigm, §  108. 
Cf.  §  <>S,  note  5,  and  page  34,  foot-note  1. 

2  Instead  of  fadern.   brodern.  the  forms  fadren.  brodren  are  sometimes  used; 
cf.  page  35,  foot-note  2. 

3  Cams  sometimes  has  the  Latin  plur.  g-crit-rn.  which  is  user!  perhaps  more 
often  -with  def.  than  with  indef.  meaning. 

4  Not,  however.  si,fen    silk,  sidenet ;    bucken    basin,  Hickcaft.    backi-m-n:   f.iffcr 
paper,  fatfcrei,  tatteren. 


62 


FIFTH  DECLENSION 


VIII 


sing,  haglet,  def.   plur.    haglen;    vapen    weapon,    vapnet,  -capncn; 
fonster  window,  fonstret,  fonstren1. 

5.  Words  ending  in  -are  drop  the  e  of  -arena ;  as,  /drama  for  la- 
rarena.     In  the  written  language,  but  not  in  the  spoken  language, 
-ne  is  in  this  case  frequently  used  to  form  the  def.  plural  of  nouns 
referring  to  persons  of  the  male   sex.     This   was   the   practice   for- 
merly more  than  now.     Cf.  §  69,  note  5. 

6.  For  the  def.  plur.,  most  nouns  ending  in  -ande  substitute  the 
prepositive  definite  article  followed    by   the   corresponding   present 
participle,  which  is  identical  with  the  noun  (cf.  §  150);   as,    de  re- 
sande  (for  resandena). 

108-  Examples  of  the  Fifth  Declension  are:  bord  (n.) 
table,  smultron  (n.)  wild  strawberry,  fonster  (n.)  win- 
dow, genus  (n.)  gender,  larare  teacher,  ordforande  chair- 
man, bota'niker  botanist,  bro(de)r  brother,  man  man, 
gas  goose. 

INDEFINITE  DEFINITE 

Sing,  bord  (n.)       bordet 
Plur.  bord  borden 


INDEFINITE  DEFINITE 
smultron  (n.)  smultronct 
smultron  smultronen 


Sing,  fonster  (n.)  fonstret          genus  (n.) 
Plur.  fonster         fonstren1        genus 

Sing,  larare  Idraren  ordforande 

Plur.  larare  lararna  (-ne)  ordforande 

Sing,  bota'niker     bota'nikern      bro(de)r 
Plur.  bota'niker     bota'nikerna    broder 


Sing,  man 
Plur. 


man 


j  i)3 


mannen 


gas 
gass 


genus 
genus 

ordfbranden 
ordforandena 

brodcrn- 
broderna 

gasen 
gassen 


1  Fonster   sometimes    uses  as  the  def.  plur.,  fonsterna.  Similarly,  frttntinnner 
woman,  has  jruntimren  or  fruntimmerna:  tiller  pill,  has  tiltren  or  fillerna. 

2  See  foot-note  2  on  the  preceding  page. 

3  Or  ,,,an;  see  §  1O6,  -t. 

4  The  change  from  »  to  nn  is   only   orthographic    (see    Phonology  §  18). 
On  the  contrary,  the  change  from  s  to   Ss  in  fds.  e«ss  is  due   to  a  change  in 
quantity. 


VIII  IRREGULARITIES  IN  DECLENSION  63 

IRREGULARITIES  IN  DECLENSION. 

109.  A  few  common-gender  nouns  (chiefly  monosyllab- 
ic) ending  in  various  vowels,  form  their  plural    by   add- 
ing  -r;   as,    ko  cow,    plur.    kor;   sko    shoe,    skor;    t&  toe, 
tar;  hustru  wife,    hustrur. 

The  def.  sing,  adds  -n;  the    def.    plur.    adds   -na;   as, 
kon,  korna;  hustrun,  hustrurna. 

110.  The  two  neuters  bga  eye,  and  bra  ear,  form  their 
plural  by  dropping  -a  and  adding  -on,    plur.   bgon,    oron. 

The  def.  sing,  adds    -t;   the    def.    plur.    adds  -en;   as, 
bgat,  bgonen. 

111.  Some  nouns  form  their  plural  in  several  (usually 
two)  different  ways:     (i)  A  large  number  of  neuters  of 
foreign  origin  ending  in  a  consonant    (chiefly    nouns   of 
more  than  one  syllable)  may  belong  either  to  the   Fifth 
or  the  Third  Declension.     Ex.:  adjektiv  adjective,  distrik't 
district,    demerit  element,    kapita'l  capital,  palat's  palace, 
poe'm  poem,  proble'm  problem,  verb  verb,  hotel' I  hotel,  bi- 
bliote'k  library.    (2)  Various  other  instances  of  two  different 
plural  forms1  for  the  same  noun  are:  huvud  head,    plur. 
huvud  (def.  huvudeii),   or  huvuden   (def.  huvudena);  ham- 
mare  hammer,  plur.  hammare  or  hamrar;  harad  district, 
township,  plur.  harad  or  hdrader. 

112.  Proper  names  ending  in  an  s-sound  do  not  add  -.? 
in  the  genitive.2     In  writing,  however,  an  apostrophe    is 

1  In  some  instances  a  difference  in  meaning  is  connected   with   the   differ- 
ence in  form  in  the  plural.     This  is  the  case  with/0/.  plur.  fatter  or  fyt:  man. 
plur.  ,,,nn  or   man:  /rd'seed,  plur.  fron  (_=  seeds)  or  frotr  ( — kinds   of  seeds; 
see  page  46,  foot-note  2).  — Note  also  eang  walk,   plur.  eangar:  gang  time, 
plur.  ganger:  bolt  book,  plur.  biickcr:  bok  beech,  plur.  bokar:  not   note,    plur.    no- 
tcr:notsc\ne,-p\ur.notar:    bank    bank,    plur.    banker:   tank    (sand)bank,    plur. 
bankar:  skilnk  gift,  plur.  skanker:  skiink  sideboard,  plur.  skdnkar:  and  so  on,  in 
the  case  of  a  few   others. 

2  Concerning  the  genitive   of  common   nouns   ending   in    an  s-sound,  see 
§  119,  end. 


64  IRREGULARITIES  IN  DECLENSION  VIII 

very  frequently  (but  less  now  than  formerly)  used  to  in- 
dicate the  case;  as,  Joharines  (older  and  biblical  form 
of  Johari)  John,  Joharines'  evange'lium  The  Gospel  Ac- 
cording to  St.  John;  Part's1  beld'gring  the  Siege  of  Paris. 

113-  FOREIGN  NOUNS.  Some  loan-words  retain  their 
foreign  plural;  as,faktum  fact,  plur.  fakta;  exa'men  exam- 
ination, plur.  exa'mina;  neutrum  neuter,  plur.  neutrer  or 
neutra;  prono'men  pronoun,  plur.  prono'men,  prono' miner1 
or  prono'mina. 

Of  these,  the  indefinite  form  is  used  also  as  the  defi- 
nite, both  in  the  singular  and  (foreign)  plural.  Ex.:  De 
perso'nliga  prono'mina  the  personal  pronouns.  Futu'rums 
bety'delse  kan  ock  uttryckas  genom  hjalpverbet  skola  och  pres. 
inf.  (read  presens  infinitiv)  med  att.  The  future  idea 
(literally,  "the  meaning  of  the  future  tense")  may  also 
be  expressed  by  the  auxiliary  skola  and  the  present  in- 
finitive with  att.  —  But  those  that  also  have  Swedish 
plurals,  i.  e.,  are  naturalized,  may  have  the  definite  ar- 
ticle; as,  neutret,  prono' minet1 . 

Some  foreign  nouns,  especially  biblical  names,  retain 
their  foreign  genitive;  as,  Matte'us  Matthew,  Matte'i  evan- 
ge'lium  The  Gospel  According  to  St.  Matthew;  Paulus 
Paul,  Pauli  brcv  The  Epistle  of  Paul;  Kristus  Christ, 
gen.  Kristi;  Jesus  Jesus,  gen.  Jesu;  Nationa' Imuseiim  Na- 
tional Museum,  Nationa' Imusei  samlingar  the  collections 
of  the  National  Museum;  filosofi'e*  doktor  Doctor  of  Phi- 
losophy; media' ne1  doktor  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

114.  ORTHOGRAPHY:  man,  mannen,  man,  mannen; 
hem,  hemmet,  hemmen;  hammare,  hamrar  (§6,  note  i; 
Phonology  §  18);  gas,  but  in  the  plural  giiss  on  account 
of  the  shortened  vowel. 

1  Notice  the  change  from  e  to  /,  in  accordance  with    Latin;    cf.    exa'men, 
exa'mina.     Recent  Swedish  text-books  frequently  retain  the  e.  trono'menet. 

2  This-<?  =  Latin  "-ae". 


VIII  FIFTH  DECLENSION  65 

115.  PRONUNCIATION:    (a)1  neutrum  (Phonology  §  35); 
egyp'tier  (§§  14;   19,   7b3);  ex  a' men  (§19,  9);  kilo,  genus 
(§  14);  kejsare  (§§  14;  12);  evange'lium  (Phonology  §  49,  4, 
note);    Wilhelm  (§  19,   8);  turn,  fern  (§  6,  note  i). 

Observe  the  change  in  the  initial  consonant-sound  of 
gas,  gass.  For  the  quantity  in  vapnet,  etc.,  see  Phonology 
§i4B2b.  — (b)  Paulus  (§12);  poe'm,  proble'm  (Phono- 
logy §  20,  2);  medic? ne  (§19,  i  b  i);  kan  (§  6,  note  i); 
Nationa! Imuseum  (§  19,  7  b  2);  perso'nliga  (Phonology 
§  14  B  2  c);  huvud  (Phonology  §  14  A  3). 

116.  ACCENT:    (i)   In  the  Fifth  Declension  monosylla- 
bles of  both  genders  with  more  than  one  syllable  in   the 
def.  form,  have  the   acute  accent   in  both  the  def.  sing, 
and  plural2;  as,  huset,  husen;  mannen,  mdnnen.     Similar- 
ly, the  monosyllables  of  §  109  have  the  acute  accent   in 
the  def.  plural;  as,  korna.     Also  nouns    with   the    stress 
on  the  last  syllable  have   the   acute   accent    in    the   def. 
sing,  and  plural;  as,  bibliote'ket,  bibliote' ken . 

(2)  Almost  all  words  of  this  declension  ending  in  the 
suffixes  -el,  -en,    -er,    have   the   acute  accent.     Important 
exceptions  are  broder  and  fader,    which,    however,    have 
the  acute  accent  in  the  plural,  broder,  fader. 

(3)  Words  of  more  than  one  syllable   with    the   acute 
accent    have   this    in    all    forms;    as,  fbnster    (sing,    and 
^\VLr.~),fdnstret,  fbnstren  (fbnsterna). 

(4)  Of  the  words  mentioned  in  this  lesson,  the  following 
have  the  acute  accent:   (a)1  genus,  kilo,  vatten,  vapen,  ha- 
gel,  prono'men,  fonster,    meter,    tusen,    egyp'tier,    Egyp'ten, 

Gottland,  Lappland.  —  Evange'lium ,  exa'men ,  genom  and  Wil- 
helm may  have  either  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent.     Bota'ni- 

1  The  •words  given  under  (a)  occur  in  the  vocabulary  and  exercises:  those 
under  (b)  occur  only  in  the  text  of  the  grammar  (exclusive  of  foot-notes). 

2  Similarly  in  the  colloquial  forms  (see  §117,  4),  Ausena,  bibliote'kena,  etc. 


66  FIFTH  DECLENSION  VIII 

ker  and  neutrum  usually  have  the  acute  accent,  but 
sometimes  the  grave. — (b)  Johan'nes,  MattJus,  Paulus, 
Karhson,  bela'gring,  bety'delse,  perso'nlig,  presens. 

117.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  Observe  that  -ne  is  not 
used  for  the  def.  plur.  in  the  spoken  language  (see  §  107, 
note  5). 

(2)  In  the  spoken  language,  words  ending  in  -are  drop 
e  in  the  def.  sing;  as,  skomakarn.     In  Southern  Sweden, 
however,  the  uncontracted  form  is  more  usual. 

(3)  In   a  large  part  of  Sweden,  neuters  drop  the  -t  in 
the  def.  form;    as,    huset,    pronounced    huse;  cf.  §  53,  3. 
But  in  the   genitive  the   /   is    always    pronounced    (see, 
however,  §  134,  2);  as,  husets. 

(4)  In  a  large  part  of  Sweden,  -a  is  added  to  the  def. 
plur.  ending  -en1;  as,  hus,   def.    plur.    husena;    bord,    bor- 
dena;  barn,  barnena;  hagel,    haglena;    so    also    g&s,     def. 
plur.  giissena.     Similarly  in  the  case    of    bga,    bra,    def. 
plur.  bgona,  brona. 

(5)  Neuters   ending    in  -er   almost  always    add    -na  in 
the  def.  plur.  in  the  spoken  language;  as,  mbnsterna  (for 
mbnstren,  from  monster  pattern);  papperna  (for  papperen, 
from  papper  paper) ;  pulverna    (for  pulvren,    from  pulver 
powder).     Some   of  these  frequently  add  -na  also  in  the 
written  language;  see  page  62,  foot-note  i. 

(6)  In  the  case  of    many   neuters  (particularly  foreign 
words)  ending  in   a  consonant  which  have  double  plural 
forms  without  difference  in  meaning,  belonging  either  to 
the  Third  or  the  Fifth  Declension  (see§  in,  i),  the  spoken 
language  prefers    the   plurals    ending    in    -er,    while    the 
written  language  prefers  the  plurals  without  ending. 

1  In  those  parts  of  Sweden  where -«  is  added,  the  def.  plur.  of  all  nouns 
ends  in  -na:  as,  jtickorna,  gossarna.  sakerna,  knuna,  husena,  fonsterna.  gassena, 
dffona,  korna. 


VIII 


FIFTH  DECLENSION 


67 


(7)  Far  and  bror  are  more  common  in  the  spoken  lan- 
guage than  in  the  written.  Cf.  §  75,  3. 

(8)  In  place  of  man,  plur.  man,  the    spoken  language 
generally  uses  karl1. 

(9)  In  the  spoken  language,  huvud  has  the  forms  hin'C, 
def.  huvet;  plur.  huven,  def.  Imvena. 

(10)  In  the  spoken  language,  Gottland  and  Lappland 
are  usually  pronounced  Gottlan  and  Lapplan,  respectively. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  The  following  nouns  belonging  to  the  Fifth  Declension 
have  occurred  in  previous  vocabularies:  barn,  bibliote'k,  bord, 
brev,  brod,  hem,  hus,  trad,  vatten;  also  fot  (with  the  plural  -er; 
cf.  page  60,  foot-note  4). 

No  declension  is  indicated  for  nouns  that  cannot  readily  be  used 
in  the  plural. 

bota'niker  (5)  botanist 
broder,   bror  (5)   brother 
egyp'tier  (5)   Egyptian 
evange'lium  n.    (3)    gospel 
exa'men   (plur.   exa'mina) 

examination 
fader,  far  (5)  father 
faktum  n.  (plur. 


falla  (foil)  fall 
fern  Jive 

fonster  n.    (5)   window 
genus  n.    (5)  gender 
gas  (5)  goose 
hagel  n.    (5)  hail,  hailstone 
hustru  (plur.  -r)   wife 
jordgubbe2  (2)   (cultivated) 
strawberry 


kejsare    (5)    emperor,    Kaiser 
kilo  n.  (5)  kilogram  (2.2  Ibs.} 
ko  (plur.    -r)  cow 
larare  (5)   teacher 
man   (5)  man,  husband 
meter  (5)  meter   (jp  inches) 
mil  (5)  mile  (6.8  Bng.   miles") 
namn  n.   (5)  name 
neutrum      n.     (3  or  nentra) 

neuter 

ordforande  (5)  chairman 
prono'men  n.  (3,  5  or  prono'- 

mina)  pronoun 
resande  (5)  traveler 
sko  (plur.    -r)  shoe 
skomakare   (5)  shoemaker 


1  The  /is  silent,  and  the  vowel  is  long;  see  §  16  a. 

2  "Gubbe"  means  "old  man". 


68  FIFTH   DECLENSION  v:il 

smultron  n.  (5)  (wild}  straw-  tyg  n.   (5  or  3)  doth 

berry  ta  (phir.  -r)  /fe 

smor  n.  butter  vapen  w.    (5)   weapon 

turn   (sometimes  «.)   (5)  ««fA  6  (2)  island 

tusen  thousand  oga  w.   (/!><for.  ogon)  f_y<? 

tva  /zev  ora  w.   (plur.  oron)  <?ar 

EXERCISE  VIII. 

A.  i.  Botanikern  och  hans   broder   voro  i  skogen   och 
plockade    smultron.      2.    Nils     Holgersson     salt     pa   en 
gas  och  red  over  Sverige.     Gassen  reste  manga    mil    oni 
dagen1.     De  flogo  fran  Skane  till  Lappland.     Gassen  vo- 
ro aven  pa    Gottland.     3.  Gottland   ar    en   stor   6.     Var 
ligger  denna  6  ?     4.  Egyptierna   bo   i  Egypten2.     5.    Bor 
icke  kejsar  Wilhelm  i  Berlin8?     6.  Soldaterna  funno  fien- 
dernas  vapen  under  traden.     7.    "Mitt"    ar    neutrum   av 
pronominet  "min".     8.   Haglen  folio  till  jorden  om    nat- 
ten,  men  de  voro  icke  kvar4,  da  morgonen  kom.     9.   Ha 
gassen  tar  ?     10.    Barnen  tyckte,  att  examina  voro  svara. 
ii.  Fadern    kopte   skorna    av    skomakaren.      12.  Kor   ha 
stora  ogon.     13.  L,ararna  sutto  i    skolan   och   talade   om 
barnen.     14.  Kons  namn  ar  icke  vackert.     15.  Notterna 
folio  fran  traden.      16.  Tva  resande  kommo    till    Uppsala 
i  dag  pa  morgonen.      17.  Skomakarens  hustru  kopte  fern 
kilo  smor5  av  en  bonde,    som   har  tva  kor.      18.   Gossens 
namn     ar     Johan.      19.    Tycker    ni     om      bruna     ogon? 
20.   Grenen    ar    fern    turn    lang.     21.     Svenskan    har  tva 
genus.    22.   "Oga"  och   "ora"   aro  neutra. 

B.  i.  The  examination  was  not  difficult.     2.  The  peas- 
ants   have    cows    and    horses.     3.   "Delta"    is  neuter  of 

1  Many  miles  a  day.  5  Observe  that  Swedish  does  not  use 

2  Egyp'ten  Egytt.  the   genitive   or   a    preposition  in  sucli 

3  Berli'n.  expressions. 
4,  Kvar  left,  remaining  there. 


VIII  FIFTH    DECLENSION  69 

"denna".  4.  Strawberries  are  red.  5.  Botanists  like 
flowers  and  trees.  6.  The  children's  eyes  are  brown. 
7.  Swedish  children  do  not  have  brown  eyes.  8.  "Jag" 
and  "du"  are  pronouns.  9.  Trees,  flowers  and  straw- 
berries grow  in  the  woods  in  summer1.  10.  The  birds 
flew  from  tree  to  tree.  n.  The  men  found  the  weapons 
in  the  house.  12.  The  cows  drank  the  water.  13.  The 
lake  is  a  mile  long.  14.  The  emperor  does  not  live  in 
this  city  during  the  summer.  15.  The  woman  bought 
five  meters  of2  cloth.  16.  Peasants  do  not  buy  butter. 
17.  The  geese  drank  the  water  which  the  peasant  gave 
the  cows.  1 8.  The  pronouns  "han"  and  "hon"  are  not 
neuters.  19.  The  chairman's  brothers  are  librarians. 
20.  Do  children  like  (cultivated)  strawberries? 

1  Use  the  def.  form  of  the  -word  for  summer, 

2  See  17  in  Exercise  A,  and  foot-note. 


70  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  IX 

LESSON    IX. 
SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN. 

118.  THE  GENITIVE.  A  few  further  illustrations  of  the 
more  extensive  use  of  the  genitive  in  Swedish  (see  §  56) 
are:1  husets  tak  the  roof  of  the  house,  diktens  forfat'tare 
the  author  of  the  poem,  Jmsets  agare  the  owner  of  the 
house,  beraf  telsens  slut  the  end  of  the  story,  bokens  par- 
mar  the  covers  of  the  book,  Rysslands  kejsare  the  Czar 
of  Russia,  777.2  (read  sjtttton  hundra  sjutfitvd')  ars  rci-o- 
lutio'n  the  revolution  of  the  year  1772,  pa  fern  mils  av- 
stand  at  a  distance  of  five  miles,  en  arans  man  a  man 
of  honor,  Finlands  forlus't  the  loss  of  Finland,  Ame'rikas 
upptackt  the  discovery  of  America,  pa  Karl  XII. -s  (read 
tolftes)  tid  in  the  time  of  Charles  XII,  vart  modcrsmals 
studium  the  study  of  our  native  tongue,  ett  fyra  vaning- 
ars  hus  a  four-story  house,  bordcts  ben  the  legs  of  the 
table,  vid  krigets  slut  at  the  end  of  the  war,  stjarnans 
fall  the  fall  of  the  star,  klassens  Idrare  the  teacher  of 
the  class,  klassens  basta  gosse  the  best  boy  in  the  class, 
vid  arets  bbrjan  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  en  fern  ars 
flicka  a  girl  of  five  years,  vid  tva  ars  alder  at  the  age 
of  two  years,  Kronobergst  Ian  the  district  of  Kronoberg, 
Stockholms  stad  the  city  of  Stockholm,  Sveriges  rike  the 
Kingdom  of  Sweden,  Lunds  universite't  the  Universit}'  of 
Lund. 

In  place-names,  in  the  case  of  certain  common  ex- 
pressions (cf.  the  examples  immediately  preceding),  no 
genitive  ending  is  added  if  the  proper  noun  ends  in  a 
vowel  or  in  certain  consonants  (including  s;  see  §112); 

1  Not  all  the  genitives  in    the   following   examples   denote   possession   or 
connection. 

2  Kronoberg  ma.v  be  stressed  Kro'noberg  or  Kronober'g. 


IX  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOl'N  71 

as,  Orebro'  Ian  the  district  of  Orebro,  Mora  socken  the 
parish  .of  Mora,  Uppsala  universite't  the  University  of  Up- 
sala,  Kalmar  Ian  the  District  of  Kalmar,  Vastera's  stad 
the  town  of  Vasteras. — Falu  gruva  the  mine  of  Falun, 
from  Falun,  and  Trollhdtte  kana'l  (=  canal),  from  Troll- 
hattan,  are  irregular. 

119-  Swedish    may,  however,    also    use  a  prepositional 
phrase  instead  of  the  genitive,  especially  when  the  word 
denoting  possession  or  connection  is  the  name  of  an  in- 
animate object,  but  some  other  preposition  than  av  of,  is 
generally    used.     Ex.:1     taket  p&  husct    the   roof    of    the 
house,  for/at' tarcn  av  (or  ////)  dikten   the    author    of    the 
poem,  dgaren  av  (till}  huset  the  owner  of  the  house,  slutet 
av  (pd~)  berdt'telsen  the  end   of  the  story,  pdrmarna pa  bo- 
kcn  the  covers  of  the  book,  kejsaren  over  (av)  Ryssland  the 
Czar  of  Russia,  revolutio' nen  (av)  1772  the  revolution  of 
the  year  1772,  pa  ett  avstand  av  fern  mil  at  a  distance  of 
five  miles,  en  man  av   dra  a  man    of   honor,      Viktor   dr 
kusfn  till  Adolf  Victor  is    Adolph's  cousin,    en  god  van 
till  mi n  far  a  good  friend  of  my  father's. 

This  substitution2  is  especially  common  in  the  case  of 
common  nouns  ending  in  an  s-  or  st-sound;  as,  taket  pd 
ctt  hits  the  roof  of  a  house,  doften  av  en  ros  the  fragrance 
of  a  rose.  Cf.  §  112. 

120-  In  some  expressions  where  English  has  the  prep- 
ositional   phrase,    Swedish    uses    merely    the    base-form, 
especially  after  nouns  of  weight,    measure,    number   and 
kind;  as,  ett  glas  kallt  vatten  a  glass  of   cold    water,    tva 
koppar  kaffe  two  cups  of  coffee,    tre  par  vita    skor   three 

1  The  following  examples  include  cases    of  animate    beings.     The   first    9 
•examples  correspond  to  the  first  9  of§  118. 

2  The  genitive  may  also  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  the  def.  form.  Ex.:  Ekor- 
renjagas  for  fiilsens  skull  (instead  of  for  sin  t.tls  skull).     Squirrels  are  hunted 
for  the  sake  of  their  fur.     Blixtens  snabbhet  (for  en  blixts  snabbhet)   the  rapidity 
of  lightning. 


72  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  IX 

pair  of  white  shoes,  ett  par  vita  skor  a  pair  of  white 
shoes,  ett  par  backer  a  couple  of  books,  en  hop  manniskor 
a  lot  of  people,  en  shock  ander  a  flock  of  ducks,  en  flaska 
black  a  bottle  of  ink,  en  tunna  rag  a  measure  (=4  bush- 
els) of  rye. 

When  the  following  noun  has  definite  meaning,  a  prep- 
osition (av  of)  must  be  used;  as,  tva  koppar  av  delta, 
kaffe  two  cups  of  this  coffee,  ett  par  av  bbckerna  a  couple 
of  the  books,  en  tunna  av  min  basta  rag  a  measure  of 
my  best  rye. 

Observe  also  juni  manad  the  month  of  June,  den  fcm- 
te  april'  the  fifth  of  April  (cf.  den  femte  dennes,  §  270), 
staden  Berli'n  the  city  of  Berlin. 

121.  Especially  in  the  spoken  language,  but  sometimes 
also  in  the  written,  a  form  resembling  the  genitive  is  used 
to   signify   some  one's   family,  house   or    business,  much 
as    in  English.     Ex.:    Jag   kbpte   smbret    hos    Meli'ns.     I 
bought  the  butter    at   Melin's.     Hon   ar  hos   Anders  sons. 
She  is  at  the  Anderson    home.      Skall   du  ga    till  Bcrg- 
strbmsf     Are  you  going  to  Bergstrom's?     Nar  man  gar 
fbrbi'  fiskarns,  ser  man  en  vik  av  sjbn.  As   you    pass    the 
fisherman's  cottage,  you  can  see  a  bay  of  the  lake.      Jo- 
hanssons   voro  icke  dar.    The  Johnsons  were  not  there. 

122.  Until  and  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  Old  Swedish 
Period  (Old  Swedish  =  about  1225 — 1526)  the  preposition 
till  to,  was  regularly  followed  by  the  genitive  case,  and  not 
by  the  base-form,  as  now.     In  a  fairly  large  number   of 
phrases  this  old   use   of    the    genitive   still    obtains,    but 
now  only  certain  nouns  can  be  used  in  the  genitive  with 
till.     These  phrases  usually  have  a  specialized    meaning, 
and  the  preposition  is  in  most  cases  not  to  be  translated 
"to";  as,  till  lands  by  land,  till sjoss1  by  sea,  ga  till  sjbss. 

\  See  §  132,  a. 


IX  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  73 

go  to  sea,  ga  till  sangs  go  to  bed,  ligga  till  sangs  lie  in 
bed,  ga  (sitta}  till  bords  sit  down  (sit)  at  table,  -vara  till 
hands  be  at  hand,  ga  till  motes  go  to  meet,  vyssja  till 
somns  lull  asleep,  till  fots  on  foot. 

Notice  that  only  the  indefinite  singular  is  used  in 
these  expressions,  and  that  the  reference  is  therefore 
never  to  a  particular  object. 

THE  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

123.  Swedish  omits  the  indefinite  article  before  a  pred- 
icate noun  denoting  occupation,  profession,  state  or 
nationality.  Ex.:  Han  ar  larare  (skomakare,  engelsmari). 
He  is  a  teacher  (a  shoemaker,  an  Englishman).  Han 
ar  bror  (vdn~)  till  bibliotcka' rien.  He  is  a  brother  (a  friend) 
of  the  librarian.  Da  jag  var  barn  when  I  was  a  child. 
Hon  ar  anka.  She  is  a  widow. 

The  article  is  in  such  cases  omitted  also  when  som  as, 
is  used.  Ex.:  Som  barn  var  han  blyg.  As  a  child  he 
was  bashful.  Jag  varde'rar  honom  som  manniska.  I  ap- 
preciate him  as  a  man  (human  being).  Karl  XII  (read 
tolfte}  visade  framstaende  egenskaper  som  harforare.  Charles 
XII  displayed  excellent  qualities  as  a  general. 

But  if  the  noun  is  further  defined  (e.  g.,  by  an  adjec- 
tive or  a  clause),  or,  more  precisely1,  if  the  personal 
characteristics  are  emphasized,  and  not  the  class,  the 
article  is  used.  Ex.:  Han  ar  en  framst&ende  vetcnskaps- 
man.  He  is  a  prominent  scientist  (scholar).  Han  ar  en 
duktig  larare.  He  is  a  good  teacher.  Han  ar  en  van,  som 
man  kan  lita pa.  He  is  a  friend  that  one  can  depend  upon. 

1  The  presence  of  a  modifier  is  not  necessary.  Ex.:  Du  ar  ett  barn.  Yon 
are  a  child.  A.  iir  en  narr.  A.  is  a  fool.  Jag betrak'tar  honom  SOM  en  van.  I  con- 
siiler  him  a  friend.  —  On  the  other  hand:  MCmnen  av  oss  har  som  litet  barn  for- 
tju'st  lyssnat  till  sin  matters  rost.  nur  hon  uttliist  skona  dikter.  Many  a  one  of  us 
Tins  as  a  little  child  listened  with  fascination  to  his  mother's  voice  as  she 
read  beautiful  poems. 


74 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  IX 


124.  The  indefinite   article    is   also  omitted  in   various 
other  phrases.    Ex. :    Jag  fick  brev  (soar)  frdn  Karl  i  dag. 
I  received  a  letter  (an  answer)  from    Carl    to-day.    FrA- 
getecken    sdttes    eftcr    direk't  fraga.     A   question-mark  is 
placed   after  a  direct    question.      Jag    har  huvndi-drk.     I 
have  a  headache.     Han  dog  dr  1870  (read  adcrton  Jnindra 
sjuttio).     He  died  in  the  year  1870.     Falla  offer  for   fall 
a  victim  to,  fd  anstdllning  get  a  position. 

On  the  other  hand,  Swedish  sometimes  uses  the  indef. 
.article  where  English  does  not;    as,    ////   en   del  in  part. 

THE  DEFINITE  FORM  OF  NOUNS. 

125.  The  definite  form  is  frequently  used  in  the  case  of 
abstract  nouns  and  of  nouns  denoting  material1,  or  a  class 
in  its  entirety  (generic  use).     Ex.:  Livet  dr  kort.  Life  is 
short.     Mdnniskan  dr  dbdlig.    Man    is    mortal.     Guld(cf) 
dr  dyrbarare  an  jdm(ef).  Gold  is  more  valuable  than  iron. 
Forsik 'tighet  dr  av  noden.     Caution  is  necessary.     Han  ta- 
lar  i  so  nine  n.     He  talks  in  his  sleep.     Ma  lyckanfolja  erf 
May  good  fortune    attend    you.     Nbdcn    har  ingen    lag. 
Necessity  has   no   law.     Fattigdom^eii)    dr  en    hard   lott. 
Poverty  is    a    hard    lot.     Ljuset    dr    snabbare    an    ljudct. 
Light  travels  faster  than  sound,      l^anans  inakt  the  force 
of  habit,  efter  dbden  after    death,  av   natural    by  nature, 
allt  ifrd'i?  ungdomen  from  youth,    sprakcts   nrsprnng    the 
origin  of  language. 

Note  also  the  following  expressions,  in  which  the  noun 
in  the  def.  form  is  used  in  a  general  sense:  Han  gar  t 
kyrkan  varje  sondag .  He  goes  to  church  ever}'  Sunday. 
Go,  i  skolan  go  to  school.  Det  dr  inte  trevligt  aft  bo  i 
stadcn  pa  sommaren.  It  is  not  pleasant  to  live  in  the 
city  in  summer.  Bnikar  du  inte  ga  pa  tea' tern?  Are  you 

1   \Yith  nouns  denoting  material  the  indef.  form  is  the  more  common. 


IX  SYNTAX  OF  THE  XOIN  75 

not  in  the  habit  of  going  to  the  theater?  Mot  aftoncn 
toward  evening.  Dei  dr  klart  som  dagen.  It  is  plain  as 
da5'light.  Klockan  fern  five  o'clock.  Middagen  dr  Jdrdig. 
Dinner  is  ready. 

126.  The  definite  form  is  used  in  expressions  with  dis- 
tributive meaning;  as,  manga  mil  om  dagen  many  miles 
a  day,  fcd  kronor  i  vcckan  two  crowns  a  week,  fern  kro- 
nor  mctern  five  crowns  a  meter,  en  krona  stycket  one  crown 
each  (apiece). 

127-  Iu  the  case  of  nouns  referring  to  parts  of  the 
body  or  to  wearing  apparel,  Swedish  may,  when  the  con- 
text makes  clear  the  meaning,  use  merely  the  definite 
form  of  a  noun,  where  English  has  a  possessive  pronoun 
and  a  noun.1  Ex.:  Vad  har  du  i  fakan?  What  have  you 
in  your  pocket?  Han  stod  ddr  mcd  hatten  i  handen  (or 
i  hand).  He  stood  there  with  his  hat  in  his  hand. 
Han  ryckte  p&  axlarna  och  drack  under  tystnad  sitl  te. 
He  shrugged  his  shoulders  and  drank  his  tea  in  silence. 

So  also  with  nouns  denoting  relationship,  when  the 
relatives  are  not  those  of  the  person  speaking  nor  of  the 
person  spoken  to.  Ex.:  Han  gay  brodern  en  rocker  bok. 
He  gave  his  brother  a  beautiful  book.  Vad  fadern  pd- 
bbrjat,  fortsatte  sbnerna.  The  sons  continued  what  their 
father  had  started.  Stina  dr  lika  vacker  som  system. 
Stina  is  just  as  pretty  as  her  sister.  Han  har  ingatt  som 
deldgare  i  fader ns  affd'r.  He  has  become  a  partner  in 
his  father1  s  business.  Sven  reste  till  Ainc'rika.  Fbrdfdrar- 
na  sbrjde  mycket,  men  sonen  kom  old  rig  hfm  igen' .  Sven 
"went  to  America.  His  parents  grieved  much,  but  their 
son  never  returned  home. — But  observe:  Mor  dr  icke 
hcmma.  Mother  is  not  at  home.  Min  bror  dr  sjuk.  My 

1  Or  Swedish  may  use  the  possessive  tor  genitive),  as  English.  Bat 
see  $  62.  note. 


76  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  IX 

brother  is  sick.  Din  bror  ar  en  duktig  larare.  Your 
brother  is  a  good  teacher.  Hur  star  del  till  med  far? 
How  is  my  (or,  your)  father? 

128.  Swedish  employs  the  definite  form  in  the  case  of 
many  geographical  names;1  as,  Ostersjbn  the  Baltic  (liter- 
ally,  "the  East  Sea");  Malaren,  Hjdlmaren,  Vanern,  Vat- 
tern,  the  names  of  the  four  large  lakes  in  Central  Sweden; 
Dalarna,  one   of   the    25    provinces    of    Sweden;  Kolmar- 
den,  a   large   forest    on    the    boundary    of   the    provinces 
Ostergotland    and   Sodermanland.      Notice    also    Turki'et 
Turkey. — Swedish  regularly  uses  the  definite  article  with 
names  of  streets;   as,  Drottninggatan  "Queen  Street". 

129.  When  used  with  a  proper  noun,   titles  are  some- 
times put  in  the  definite  form;  in  the  case  of  some  titles, 
however,  either  the  definite  or  the  indefinite  form  may  be 
employed,    while  others   are  always  left  in  the  indefinite 
form  (especially  those  ending  in  -al,  -or,   -or] ;    as,    prin- 
ses'san  Ingeborg     Princess  Ingeborg,  prostcn  Lundel'l  Rev- 
erend Lundell,  doceyi't^  (or  docen'teifi,  =  lecturer)    Sitndcn 
Mr.  Sunden,  profes'sor*  Cederschiold  Professor  Cederschiold, 
herr  Johansson  Mr.  Johnson.     Cf.  §  39,  2. 

130.  In  some  instances,  Swedish  has  the  indefinite  form 
where  English  employs  the  definite  article;  as,  i  juni  ma- 
nad  in  the  month  of  June,  ar  1912    (read  nitton   hundm 
tolv)   (in)  the  year  1912,  tala   sanning   speak    the   truth, 
i  nar-varande  stund  at  the  present  moment,  ga  at  ratt  hall 
go  in  the  right  direction.     Ar  du  saker  pa,  att  dct  ar  ratt 
adres's?     Are  you  sure  it  is  the    right  address?      Till  nu 
behan'dlade  grupp  libra  de  flesta  av  dessa  ord.     Most  of  these 
words    belong    to    the   group    just    treated.     Fbre'ningcn 
sammantrader  pa  vanlig  loka'l  mandag  kl.  8  (read  klockan 

1  English  tises  the  def.  article  similarly.     But    observe   that   some    of  the 
examples  differ  from  English  usage. 

2  See  page  19,  foot-note  3. 


IX  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  77 

dtta).     The  Society  will  meet  in  the    usual   place,    Mon- 
day at  8. 

131.  ORTHOGRAPHY \juni  (§  24,  3);  engelsman  (§  24,  2); 
titles  (§  24,  i);  Linncgatan,    Tegner  (§  90). 

132.  PRONUNCIATION:  (a)£)/r/fo(§  14;  Phonology §24, 2, 
note);  Esai'as    (§  12);    Tegner    (§19,    2  c);    Hjdlmaren 
(§  16);    engclsk  (§    19,  5  b);  Lagerlbf  (Phonology  §  42, 
note). — Observe  the  shortened  vowel  in  till  sjbss  as   com- 
pared with  the  normal  genitive  (en)  sjbs;  similarly  in  //// 
fots.  —  (b)  manniska  (§  14,  note);  stjdrna  (§  19,  6  b);  do- 
cen't  (§  19,  i  b  i);      Cederschibld  (§  19,  i  b  i ;     schi  =  sch, 
§  19,  6b);  Karl  (§  16  a);  anka  (§  19,  5  a  i);    an,    igen' 
(§  6,  note  i);    prost    (§  9,  3  a);  revolution    (Phonology 
§  54,  4  b);  ljus,  ljud  (§  16);    nniversite't  (§  8,  2,  note); 
april'    (§    6,   note  i);    dbdlig,    vanlig    (Phonology   §    14, 
B  2  c). 

133.  ACCENT.  The  following  words  have  the  acute  ac- 
cent:  (a)  forfat'tare,  feber,    liter,    ddrfbr,    varfbr,    engelsk, 
Smaland,  Ndrke,  Sbdermanland ,   Sbnnland,   Svensson,  Lon- 
don.—  Engelsman,    Varmland,    Vdnern    and    Vattem    have 
either  the  acute  or    the    grave   accent.  —  (b)  fordl'drar, 
fbre'ning,  fbrsik' tighet,   bcriit' tclse,   behan'dla,    vdrde'ra,  son- 
dag ,  in  an  dag,  iniddag,  jnni,    stndium,    offer,    sdker,    efter, 
Ryssland,    Finland >      }"iktor,     Kalinar,     Turki'et. — Hundra 
and  sjutti(p)  usually  have  the   acute    accent.     Adolf  and 
tea'tcr  may  have  either  the  grave  or  the  acute  accent. 

134.  COLLOQUIALISMS:    (i)    In    the    spoken  language, 
opp  is  in  the  greater  part  of  Sweden  used  in  place  of  npp. 

(2)  The  spoken  language  almost  always  employs  a  prep- 
ositional phrase  instead  of  the  genitive  to  express  posses- 
sion or  connection  in  the  case  of  inanimate  objects1.  Fre- 
quently a  compound  noun  is  used  in  place  of  the  geni- 

1  A  prepositional  phrase  is  often  used  also  in  the  case  of  living  beings. 


78  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  IX 

tive  +  noun  (as  bordsfbtterna,  bokparmcii) ,  or  an  adjective 
is  used  for  the  genitive. 

(3)  The  use  of  the  s-form  of  nouns  treated  in  §  121  be- 
longs primarily  to  the  spoken  language. 

(4)  Vad  is  generally  pronounced  i-a;  the  long  a  of  z-a 
is  frequently  shortened  and,  particularly  when  the  word 
is  used  as    an    interrogative1   pronoun,    also   changed   in 
quality  (cf.  Phonology  §  30).  —  In  the  spoken  language, 
particularly  in  easy  speech,  vid  is  pronounced    ve    (short 
vowel,  unstressed). 

(5)  Ostergbtland ',    Varmland  and    Smaland   are    in    the 
spoken  language    usually  pronounced    without    the    final 
d.     Sbdermanland  is   in    the   spoken    language    generally 
shortened   to    Sormland,    where,    as    in    the   case    of  the 
words  just  mentioned,  the  final  d  is  usually  silent. 

(6)  On  the  pronunciation  of  Drottninggatan  cf.  §  75,    7. 

VOCABULARY. 

ben  n.  (5)  leg,  bone  feber  (2)  fe-ccr 

biskop  (2)  bishop  ficka  (1)  pocket 

dnktig  abt&,  good  fa  {irregular;   sing,    -r;    past 

dar  there,  where  fick,    phir.    fingo)     receive, 

darfor  therefore,  for  that  get 

reason  forfat'tare   (5~)   author 

en  (n.  ett)2  one  glas  n.   (5)  glass 

engelsk    English;   -a     tJie  kaffe  n.  coffee 

English     language;    pa  kopp  (2)  cup 

-a  in  English  kosta  (-ade)  cost 

engelsman  (5;  plur.  -man)  krona  (1)  crown  (=  2~  cents'), 

Englishman  croii'ii 

1  /  ~,ij  may  be  either  an  interrogative  or  a  relative   pronoun;    see  Lesson 
XXIII. 

2  The  forms   are  identical   with   those  of  the  indefinite  article,   but  the 
latter  is  unstressed,  while   the  numeral  en  is  stressed. 


IX  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  79 

kyrka   (1)  chunk  sung   (2)   bed 

liter  (5)  liter  (  =  1.76 pints)  till  tot  of,  by 

Ian  n.   (5)  district  trappn    (1)    stair;  en    trappa 

inellan  between  upp  <?;/  //^  second  floor;  tva 

ord  ?/.    (•">)   icord  -or   upp  #«    ///^  third  floor^- 

par  ?^.   couple;  (/>)  />a/r  upp  ?c/> 

pa  of,   to,   on  vad  what? ,  what 

rik    r/V//;    rik    pa  rich  in,  varfor  avi>/ 

abounding  in  vid  #/,   ^y,    z'w 

soin  «5  yrke  w.    (4)    trade,  occupation 

EXERCISE  IX. 

A.  i.  Deras  bror  ar  bibliotekarie.  Ar  ban  en  duktig 
bibliotekarie  ?  2.  Han  bor  ett  par  engelska  mil  fran 
Condon.  3.  Malaren  ar  rik  pa  oar.  Tycker  ni  icke,  att 
Malaren  ar  en  stor  sjo? — Jo,  och  den  ar  aven  mycket 
vacker.  4.  Min  van  bar  feber.  5.  Svenssoii  ar  skoma- 
kare  till  yrket.  6.  Hennes  far  far  fern  kroner  om  dagen, 
dar  ban  arbetar.  7.  Broderna  bodde  vid  Linnegatan  fern2, 
tva  trappor  upp.  8.  En  liter  jordgubbar  kostar  en  krona. 
9.  Varfor  bar  du  inte  skorna  pa  fotterna?  10.  Stock- 
holm ligger  mellan  Malareu  ocb  Ostersjon3.  n.  Mannen 
kopte  ett  par  tofflor  av  skomakaren.  De  kostade  endast 
fern  kroner  paret.  12.  Hustrun  och  barnen  sutto  till 
bords,  da  vi  kommo.  13.  Smoret  kostade  en  krona  kilot. 
14.  Mora  socken  ar  i  Dalarna.  15.  Joban  lag  till  sangs 
tva  dagar.  16.  Forfattaren  far  en  krona  ordet.  17.  Sverige 
ar  rikt  pa4  sjoar.  18.  Johan  gav  modern  tva  kroner  om 
dagen.  Darfor  tyckte  hon  om  sonen.  19.  Vad  ar  ordets 
genus? 


1  On  the  first  floor  is  "p4  nedra  (or,  nedre)  botten"  or  "i  bottenv&ningen". 

2  Linne'gatanfem  5  Linng  St.  —  Observe  the  order. 

3  The   Baltic. 

;  -i,is  in. 


So  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN  IX 

B.  i.  The  legs  of  the  table  are  high1.  2.  The  shoe- 
maker's wife  bought  two  kilograms  of  butter  at  Palmer's. 
3.  The  boys  are  in  school  now.  4.  Hjalmaren  is  the 
name  of2  a  large  lake  that  lies  between  Vastmanland, 
Narke  and  Sodermanland.  5.  Selma  Lagerlof  lives  in 
Falun  in  Dalarna.  Her  home  was  in  Varmland  when 
she  was  a  child.  6.  I  bought  five  meters  of  the  red 
cloth.  This  cost  two  crowns  a  meter.  7.  Esaias3  Tegner, 
who  is  the  author  of  "Fritiofs  Saga",  was  bishop  of 
Vaxjo,  a  little  town  in  the  district  of  Kronoberg  in 
Smaland.  8.  The  strawberries  cost  two  crowns  a  liter. 

9.  The  boys  found  a  couple  of  good  apples  on  the   tree. 

10.  Is    the    doctor    an    Englishman?     n.  He     has     two 
crowns  in  his  pocket.     12.  Did  you  drink  a  cup  of  coffee 
or     a     glass    of    water?     13.     Stockholm    is    beautiful4. 
14.  Was  she  pretty    as   a    child?     15.  We   lived    on    the 
second  floor. 


1  Use"lang".  3  Esai'as. 

2  Pa.  4,  See  page  79,  foot-note  4. 


X  FUTURE  TIME  8 1 

LESSON  X. 
FUTURE  TIME.     ORDER  OF  WORDS. 

135.  Future  time  is  usually  expressed  by   the   present 
tense  when  the  context  shows  that   the   reference    is    to 
future  time.     Ex.:  Han  kommer  i  kvall.     He  is    coming1 
this    evening.     Jag   ar   hemma  i  morgon  klockanfem.     I 
shall  be  at  home    to-morrow    at    five    o'clock.     Reser  die 
snart?     Are  you  going  to  leave  soon? 

In  many  verbs,  namely  those  that  denote  transition 
from  one  condition  or  action  to  another,  or  which  point  to 
the  attainment  of  a  result2  (that  is,  denote  a  change  of 
some  kind),  the  present  may  be  used  to  express  future 
time  without  such  context.  Ex.:  Jag  somnar  nog.  I'll 
fall  asleep,  no  doubt.  Blir  han  frisk?  Will  he  get  well? 
Det  blir  bra.  That  will  be  fine.  Du  fuller.  You'll  fall. 
Far  jag  svar  p&  brevet?  Shall  I  get  a  reply  to  the  let- 
ter? Jag  ialar  inte  om  det  for  nagon.  I  shall  not  tell 
anyone. 

136.  Future  time  may  also  be  expressed  by  means   of 
auxiliaries  followed  by  the  infinitive: 

(i)  Very  often  by  the  present  of  komma  followed  by 
ait  to,  with  the  present  infinitive.  This  auxiliary-future 
is  conjugated  as  follows: 

1  Observe    that   English    also  sometimes  uses  the  present  tense  to    ex- 
press  future   time. 

2  These  are  called  TERMiNATrvE  VERBS.     Ex.:  I  bought  you  a  book.     The 
boy   hit   the    window  with  a  ball  and  broke  it.     I  lay   down   on    the   couch 
and  soon  fell  asleep.     He  wounded  his  enemy.     I  have  written  a  few  letters. 
Please  remind  me  if  I  forget  to  light  the  lamp.     The   boy   fell    off  the  fence. 

On  the  other  hand,  verbs  that  denote  an  action  as  going  on,  and  which  do 
not  point  to  its  beginning  or  end,  or  to  the  result  of  the  action  (that  is, 
do  not  denote  a  change  of  any  kind),  are  called  CURSIVE  VERBS.  Ex.:  I  have 
a  beautiful  book.  I  admire  his  good  qualities.  He  is  sleeping.  He  was 
lying  on  the  ground.  I  hate  (love)  him.  It  rained  all  day.  —  Many  verbs 
may  be  at  one  time  terminative,  at  another,  cursive. 


82  FUTURE  TIME  X 

Sing,   jag,  etc.,  kommer  aft  tala  (bygga,  kbpa,  bo,  skriva} 
Plur.  vl  komma  att  tala   (.bygga,  kbpa,   bo,  skriva) 
I  kommen  att  tala   (bygga,  kbpa,  bo,  skriva) 
de  komma  att  tala  (bygga,  kbpa,   bo,  skriva} 
Ex.:  Han  kommer  att  resa  i  morgon.     He  is    going1  to 
leave    to-morrow.     Det  kommer  att    regna    snart.      It    is 
going    to   rain    soon.       Sjukdomen    kommer  nog   att   vara 
lange.     The  sickness  will  no  doubt  last  long.     Han  kom- 
mer att  bli  vald  med  stor  majorite't.     He   will    be  elected 
by  a  large  majority. 

(2)  Comparatively  seldom  by  the    forms    of   skola   fol- 
lowed by  the  present  infinitive  (without  att}: 
Sing,  jag,  etc.,  shall  tala  (bygga,  kbpa,  bo,  skriva) 
Plur.  vi  skola  tala  (bygga,  kbpa,  bo,  skriva) 
I   skolcn  tala  (bygga,  kbpa,  bo,  skriva} 
de  skola  tala  (bygga,  kbpa,  bo,  skriva) 

Note.  —  i.  Observe  the  vowel-change  in  shall,  skola.  Cf.  §  138, 
note  2.  Also  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  is  changed. 

2.  Notice  that  skall  does  not  end  in  -r  (see  §  46,  i ).     The  same  is 
true  of  vill  in  §  137  and  of  kan  in  §  138.    Corresponding  to  this,  notice 
in  English  the  absence  of  -s  in  the  third  person  singular  of  "shall", 
"will"  and  "can",  as  compared  with  "  (he)  runs",  "(he)  calls". 

3.  Shall  with  the  present    infinitive   is    of   very   frequent  occur- 
rence,   but    it    comparatively    rarely    expresses    pure    futurity.     It 
usually    expresses    decision,    determination    or    command.      These 
ideas  necessarily  point  to  future  time,  but  the  futurity  is  secondary. 

137.  There  is  in  Swedish  nothing  corresponding  to  the 
English  distinction  between  "shall"  and  "will"  in  the 
different  persons.  The  Swedish  verb  corresponding  in 
form  to  Eng.  "will"  is  vilja,  but  this  always  means  "want 
to",  "wish  to"  or  "will"  (when  this  implies  volition), 
and  it  is  never  used  to  express  futurity.  It  is  followed  by 
the  present  infinitive  without  att  to.  Its  forms  are: 

1  Note  the  use  of  "go"  as  an  auxiliary  of  the  future  in    English. 


ORDER  OF  WORDS 


PRESENT 

Sing,  jag,  etc.,  vill 
Plur.  m  vilja 

I  viljen 

de  vilja 


PAST 

mile 

mile 

villen 

mile 


PRESENT 

PAST 

PRESENT 

Sing,   jag,  etc.,  blir 
Plur.    vi  bli(va) 
I  bliven 

bUv 

blevo 
bleven 

jag,  etc., 
vi  kunna 
I  kunnen 

de  bli(va) 

blevo 

de  kunna 

138.  The  forms  of  the  verbs  bli(va)  become,  be,  and 
kunna  can,  be  able,  are: 

PAST 

kan       kunde 
kunde 
kunden 
kunde 

Note.  —I.  Cf.  the  present  of  bli(va)  with  that  of  ha(va]  in  §  42. 
2.  Observe  that  there  is  vowel-change  in  the  present  of  kunna, 
similar  to  that  in  the  past  tense  of  finna  in  §  99. 

ORDER  OF  WORDS. 

139-  INVERSION.  Normally,  the  subject  precedes  the 
verb  in  declarative  sentences,  just  as  in  English.  But 
in  principal  clauses1  this  order  is  inverted,  the  verb2 
being  placed  before  the  subject  in  the  following  cases: 

(i)  If  any  word  or  words  belonging  to  the  predicate 
(as  adverbs,  adverbial  phrases,  the  object,  a  predicate 
adjective  or  a  predicate  noun)  precede  the  subject.3  Ex.: 

1  In  direct  questions,  inversion  takes  place  (see  page  24,  foot-note  1).  un- 
less the  subject  is  an  interrogative  word,  or  is  modified  by  an  interrogative 
word.    Further,  questions  introduced  by  manne  or  containing  the  adverb  /« 
do  not   have   inversion.     T'x.:   I'cm  sade  detta?    "Who   said  this?     Vilkendcra 
viigen  iir  vackrast  ?     Which  way  is  the   prettiest  ?     Manne  han  kontmer  ?    Will 

Concerning  inversion  in  connection  with  the  imperative  see  §  243,  note  3. 

2  That  is,  the  finite  form  of  the  verb. 

3  Note  that  there  is  much  more  freedom    in     the    order    of   words    in 
Swedish   than  in  English.     In    principal  clauses,  words   belonging    to    the 
predicate    are    very  often   placed   first,  and,    as    a  result,  inversion  is  very 
common.     Almost   any    word   can    be   placed    at   the   beginning  of  a    prin- 
cipal   clause,    to    indicate    transition    from  -what   has  gone  before,  or    for 
emphasis. 


84  ORDER  OF  WORDS 

Sedan  skrev  han  ett  brev.  Afterwards  he  wrote  a  letter. 
/  Stockholm  kbpte  jag  ett  bord.  I  bought  a  table  in  Stock- 
holm. Glad  var  han  inte.  He  was  not  glad.  Peng  a  r 
har  han  nog.  You  may  be  sure  he  has  money.  Bro- 
dern  ar  han  and  pa.  He  is  angry  with  his  brother.  In- 
te vet  jag  det.  I'm  sure  I  don't  know. 

(2)  If  a  subordinate  clause  precedes  the  principal 
clause.  Ex.:  Om  han  icke  ar  sjuk,  (so)  kommcr  han. 
If  he  is  not  ill,  he  will  come.  Nar  klockan  var  atta,  kom 
han  hem  igen' .  He  came  home  again  when  it  was  eight 
o'clock. 

Note.  —  i.  When  inversion  has  taken  place,  the  negative,  if 
there  is  one,  follows  immediately  upon  the  subject.  Ex.:  Om 
han  ar  sjuk,  (sd)  kommcr  han  icke.  If  he  is  ill,  he  will  not  come. 
(Cf.  Han  kommcr  icke.  He  will  not  come.) 

2.  Da  then,  when,  dar  there,  where,  dit  thither,  whither,    are 
used  both  as  adverbs  and  as  relative  conjunctions.     When  they  are 
conjunctions,    the  normal  order  follows.     When   used    as   adverbs, 
they    cause   inversion    when  they  stand  first    in   the   clause.     Ex.: 
Da  kom  han.    Then  he  came.    Da  han  kom,  var  jag  icke  hemma. 
When  he  came,  I  was  not  at  home. 

3.  When  a  subordinate  clause  precedes  the  principal  clause,  the 
latter  is  very  often  introduced  by  sd    then,  especially   after  a  con- 
ditional clause.   See  §  146,  i.    This  sd  is  in  most  cases  left  untrans- 
lated in  rendering  into  English.     See  the  examples  in  §§  139,  2;  140. 

140-  In  the  condition  of  a  conditional  sentence,  the 
conjunction  om  if,  may  be  omitted.  In  this  case  inver- 
sion takes  place.  Ex.:  Om  han  kommer,  sd  ar  det  bra. 
Kommcr  han1,  sd  ar  det  bra.  If  he  comes,  it  will  be  well. 

In  other  cases,  inversion  does  not  take  place  in  subor- 
dinate clauses.2  Ex.:  Inte  kanjag  veta,  vilken  bok  du  vill 

1  Observe  that  this   conditional  clause  is  in  form  the  same  as  a  question. 

2  Except,  frequently,  in  clauses  introduced  by  aft,  \\-hichhaveinversionjust 

the  predicate,  or  another  subordinate  clause,  is  inserted  immediately  after 
the  conjunction.  Ex.:  Han  sadc.  ait  fa  tre  dagar  hade  han  icke  fatt  nagon 


X  ORDER  OF  WORDS  85 

ha.  I'm  sure  I  don't  know  which  book  you  want.  (Cf. 
Vtiken  bok  z'ill  du  ha?  Which  book  do  you  want?)  See 
also  the  illustrations  in  §  139,  2. 

141.  The  rule  given  in  §  101  holds  also  for1  (i)  airing* 
never,  and  the  other  words  that  have  negative  force3; 
(2)  adverbs  referring  to  indefinite  time2;  as,  ofta  often, 
alltid  always,  snart  soon;  (3)  certain  adverbs  belonging 
to  the  whole  clause;  as,  vdl  no  doubt,  nog  no  doubt, 
surely. 

Words  which  thus  vary  their  position  in  principal  and 
subordinate  clauses  are  called  movable  words.  Ex.: 
Backer,  som  icke  aro  inbundna,  aro  icke  starka.  Books 
that  are  not  bound  are  not  strong.  Plan  far  sallan  till 
staden.  He  rarely  goes  to  town.  Jag  vet,  att  han  sallan 
far  till  staden.  I  know  that  he  rarely  goes  to  town. 
Jag  har  indenting  sett.  I  have  seen  nothing.  Han  sd- 
ger,  att  han  ingenting  har  sett.  He  says  that  he  has 
seen  nothing.  (On  the  contrary:  Jag  har  sett  nagonting. 
I  have  seen  something.  Han  sager,  att  han  har  sett  na- 
gonting. He  says  that  he  has  seen  something.)  Han 

mat.  He  said  that  be  had  not  had  any  food  for  three  days.  Mamma  kom  ut  och 
re  fade,  att  nu  rar  det  fdrdigt.  Mother  came  out  and  said  that  it  was  ready 
now.  Urmakaren  tastod,  att  ett  sadant  ur  kunde  ineen  annan  eora.  The 
watchmaker  asserted  that  no  one  else  could  make  such  a  watch.  Han  visste. 
att  om  han  gav  efter  for  trottheten.  sa  var  han  fdrlo'rad.  He  knew  that  he 
would  be  lost  if  he  yielded  to  his  weariness. 

(as  also  icke)  may  stand  first  and  cause  inversion  in  the  regular  -way  (see 
§  139,  1).—  In  the  auxiliary-tenses,  e.  g.,  in  the  future,  the  auxiliary  is  the 
finite  form  of  the  verb. 

2  Observe  that  English,  contrary  to  the  practice  in   Swedish,  frequently 
places   temporal  adverbs  of  indefinite  time  between  the  subject  and  the  verb 
when  the  latter  is  used  in  the  simple  tenses.   Ex.:  He  often  came  for  a  visit. 
Han  kom  ofta  to.  beso'k.    He  always  told  the  truth.     Han  talade  alltid  tanning. 
He  never  wrote  home.     Han  skrcv  aldrig  hon.  —  But  in  the  case  of  auxiliary- 
tenses,  the  adverb  stands  after  the  auxiliary  in  English  as   well    as  in  Swed- 
ish.    Ex.:  He  has  never  written  home.     Han  har  aldrig  skririt  hem. 

3  If  the  negative  word  is  an  adjective,  the  word  it  modifies    (which   must 
be  in  the  predicate  in  the  cases  under  consideration)  goes  with  it. 


86  ORDER  OF  WORDS  X 

kom  lyckligtvis  i  tid.  He  fortunately  came  ill  time.  Jag 
har  ing  en  ujiderriittelse  haft.  I  have  had  no  information. 
Du  borde  ingen  mat  fa.  You  ought  not  to  get  any  food. 

142-  Swedish  to  a  large  extent  places  the  modifiers  of 
a  noun  between  an  article  (or  adjective  pronoun)  and  the 
noun,  where  a  similar  order  is  not  possible   in   English. 
Ex.:    en  fore'ningcns   medlem  a  member    of    the    society, 
varje  dess  del  every  part  of  it,  denna  deras  egenskap  this 
quality  of  theirs,  nagra  mina  vanner  some  friends  of  mine, 
denna  min  anmarkning  this  remark  of  mine,  en  win  yng- 
re  systcr  a  younger  sister  of  mine,  det  efter  win    mcning 
basta  stycket  the  piece  that  in  my  opinion   is  best,   syssel- 
satt  med  utarbetandet  av  en    annu    langt   ifra'n    avslutad, 
vidlyftig  nysvensk  grammaii'k  engaged  in   the   writing   of 
a  large  Modern  Swedish  grammar  that  is  as  yet  far  from 
finished,  en  grupp  av  med  -varan' dra  effer  vissa  princi'per 
inti'mt  associe'rade  ord  a  group  of  words  closely  associated 
with  each  other  according  to  certain  principles. 

Similarly,  it  is  quite  regular  to  place  words  between 
att  and  the  infinitive.  Ex.:  Vanan  att  uti  lasning  av 
god  litteratu'r  soka  vila  och  vederkvickelse  the  practice  of 
seeking  rest  and  recreation  in  the  reading  of  good  liter- 
ature. 

Note. — Negative  adverbs,  ingenting  nothing,  and  the  object  when 
modified  by  a  negative  word,  are  regularly  placed  between  att  and 
the  infinitive.  Ex.:  Att  aldrig  tala  osanning  never  to  tell  a  lie. 
Att  ingenting  saga  a'r  battre  an  att  saga  ndgot  dumt.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  say  nothing  than  to  say  something  foolish.  Att  inga  van- 
ner  ha  dr  en  star  olycka.  It  is  very  unfortunate  not  to  have  any 
friends.  Det  ar  bra  att  icke  vara  sjuk.  It  is  well  not  to  be  sick. 

143-  ORTHOGRAPHY:  kunna,     kan,    kunde    (Phonology 
§  1 8  b);  vill,  vilja   (Phonology  §  17). 

144.  PRONUNCIATION:  (a)  regna  (§  19,  2  c);  igen' 
(§  14);  om  (§  6,  note  i);  snart  (§6,  note  2). — Observe 


X  FUTURE  TIME,  ORDKR  OF  WORDS  87 

the  change  in  the  initial  consonant-sound  in  ga,  gick. 
—  (b)  princi'p,  associe' ra  (§  19,  i  b  i);  l&sning  (Phonology 
§  14  B  2  c>. 

145.  ACCENT.     The    following    words    have    the   acute 
accent:   (a)  forsik'tig,  vdder,  Linder.  —  Oskar   has    either 
the  acute  or  the  grave  accent.  —  (b)  associe'ra,  fbre'ning, 
yngre. —  Vilken  may  have  either  the  acute  or  the  grave 
accent. 

146.  COLLOQUIALISMS:     (i)   Particularly  after    clauses 
other  than  conditional  clauses  (see  §   139,  note  3),   sa  is 
much  more  frequently  used  in    the   spoken    than   in    the 
written  language.     Ex.:  Eftersom  du  inte   vill  folja  med, 
sd  far  jag  val  gd   ensam.     Seeing    that   you   don't    want 
to  go  along,  I  suppose  I'll  have  to  go  alone. 

(2)  Shall  is  in    the    spoken    language    pronounced    ska 
(vowel    short    when   not   stressed),    which    is   then   also 
used  for  the  plur.  skola. 

(3)  In    the    written    language    both    the    longer    and 
the  shorter  forms  of    bli(va)    are    used;    in    the    spoken 
language,  only  the  shorter  forms.     Cf.  §  39,  4. 

(4)  Of  sedan  afterwards,  there  is  also  a  shorter  form, 
sen   (vowel  usually  short).     In  the  written  language,  se- 
dan is  of  more  frequent  occurrence;  in    the    spoken    lan- 
guage,  sen. 

(5)  The  word-order  described  in  §  142,  beginning,  be- 
longs to  the  written  language  only. 

(6)  In  the  spoken  language,  kvalln  is  in  many  parts  of 
Sweden  used  as  the  def.  form  of  kvall. 

(7)  In  the  spoken  language  (primarily  in  easy  speech), 
alltid,  fbrsik'tig  and  fbrsik'tigt  are  pronounced    allti,  fbr- 
sik'ti,  fbrsik'tit.  —  Kunde   is   in    easy   speech    pronounced 
kunne. 


88 


FUTURE  TIME,  ORDER  OF  WORDS 


all  t  id  always 

bliva  (blev)  become,  be,  get 

bra  adj.  and   adv.,    well1, 

good,  fine 
det  it* 

frisk    well    (=not  sick) 
forsik'tig  careful 
glad  glad,  happy 
ga    (irregular*;    sing,     -r; 

past    sing,    gick,  plur. 

gingo)  go 
igeii'  again 
i  ga'r  yesterday 
i  mor'gon  to-morrow 
klocka     (1)     clock;    kloc- 

kan  ett  (at)  one  tf  dock; 

klockan    tva    (af)    two 

o'clock 
kunna  (kunde)  can,  be  able 


VOCABULARY. 

kvall     (2) 


kvall 


surely 


evenng; 

this  evening 
nog  enough;  no  doubt, 
ofta  often 
om  if,  whether 
regna  (-ade)  rain 
sedan,    sen   afterwards, 

after 

skola  shall 
snart  soon 

somna  (-ade)  go  to  sleep 
svar  n.    (5)    answer,    reply 
svara    (-ade)    answer,     reply 
sa  so,  then 
vilja  (ville)  want  to,  wish  to, 


vader  ;/.    (5)   weather 
val  well;  no  doubt,    I  suppose 
atta  eight 

Observe  the  following  series:  (i)  adverb,  (2)  adverb 
or  relative  conjunction4,  (3)  interrogative  (used  also  in 
indirect  questions). 

TIME  WTHEN         PLACE  WHERE 
(i)  nil  now  har  here 


PLACE  WHITHER 
hit  here    (—  hither) 
(lit  there  (=  thither) , 
where    ( =    whither) 
vart  where? 

(—w'hither?) 

1  Swedish  "bra",  like  English  well,  is  also  frequently  used  in  the  sense  of 
•frisk"   (not  sick). 

2  Used,   e.  g.,  in  sentences  such  as:  it  is  raining  det  regnar. 

3  Cf.  "fa"  in  the  vocabulary  of  Lesson  IX. 

4  See  §  139,  note  2. 

5  "Da"  also  frequently  has  the  meaning  since. 


(2)  da  then,   w/ien5   dar  there,   where 

(3)  nar  when?  Also    var  where? 
used  as  rel.  conj. 


X  FUTURE  TIME,  ORDER  OF  WORDS  89 

EXERCISE  X. 

A.  i.  Om  sommaren  aro  dagarna  langa.     2.  Nu  kom- 
mer    gossen.     3.  Har  bor  jag.     Var  bor  du?     4.  Om  du 
vill,    sa    kommer    jag    i     morgon     kvall     klockan     atta. 
5.  Kommer  froken  Linder  att  sjunga  i  kvall?     6.  Da  jag 
kom,  sutto  de  och  laste.     7.  Om   du    skriver   i    morgon, 
sa  blir  det  bra.     8.  I  morgon    kvall   klockan   atta   skola 
vi  resa.     9.  En  god  van  till  min  bror  reser  till  Amerika 
i  morgon.     10.    Nar   jag    kom,    lago   gossarna   och   sovo 
under  tradet.      u.  Var  han  inte  hemma  ?  —  Nej,  men  ban 
kommer   val   snart.      12.  Vi    komma    att    resa    i    morgon 
klockan  fern.     13.  I  gar  var  Sven  dar.     I    dag    kommer 
han  hit.     14.  Anders1  sade,  att  jag  far  svar  i  dag.     15.  I 
dag    pa    morgonen   fick   jag   brev    fran    herr   Lundgren. 
1 6.  Nar  han  kommer  till  staden,  far  han  fern  kroner  om 
dagen.     17.  Skall  ni  rida  hem   nu?     18.  I   dag   pa   mor- 
gonen var  jag  i  kyrkan. — Vart  gick  du  sedan?  —  Sedan 
gick  jag  hem.      19.  Du  far  snart  svar.     20.  Blir  ni  glada, 
om  ni  far  dessa  bocker? — Nej,  bockerna  vilja  vi  inte  ha. 
21.   I  Stockholm  ar    det    vackert.     22.  Kommer    han,    sa 
far  du  brev  i  dag.     23.  Oskar  ar  sjuk,  men  han  blir  val 
frisk  snart.     24.  Om  du  vill,  sa  skall  du  fa  ett  par   sto- 
lar.     25.  Gossen  sade,  att  han    aldrig    ville   ga  dit   igen. 
26.  Far  jag  bockerna?    27.  Du  finner  nog  glaset.  28.    Har 
du  nog  smor  pa  brodet? 

B.  i.  Are  you  going    to    buy    the   horse?     2.   I   shall 
soon  fall  asleep.     3.  If  I  get  an  answer  from  my  brother 
to-day,   I  shall  write  a  long  letter  this    evening.     4.    He 
will  soon  get  well. — Did  the  doctor  say  that  he  will  soon 
get  well?     5.   Do  you  think  it  is  going  to  rain?     6.  Our 
friends  came  at  eight  o'clock.     7.  The  boys  will  no  doubt 
find  many  nuts  in    the   woods.     8.  I    am    going   to    like 


90  FUTURE  TIME,  ORDER  OF  WORDS 

this  house.  9.  Your  mother  gave  my  brother  these  nuts. 
10.  If  he  is  not  careful,  he  will  get  sick.  n.  If  you 
give  your  sister  your  apple,  you  shall  have1  a  crown. — 
Then  I  can  buy  many  apples.  12.  Then  the  shoemaker's 
wife  went  to  L,undgren's  and  bought  a  kilogram  of 
butter.  13.  The  boy  has  two  pair  of  shoes.  His 
father  bought  this  pair2  yesterday.  14.  Are  you  coming 
here  this  evening?  15.  The  doctor's  sister  is  going  to 
sing  to-morrow  evening.  16.  When  is  the  professor 
coming  here  again?  17.  It  is  well  that  summer  is  here. 
18.  Why  did  the  boys  go  home  again?  19.  We  couldn't 
come  yesterday  evening,  but  if  the  weather  is  fine 
("vackert"),  we  shall  come  to-morrow  evening.  20.  They 
wanted  to  fly,  but  they  couldn't.  21.  Birds  can  fly. 
22.  The  children  were  always  happy  in  school3.  23.  She 
said  that  her  brother  is  not  sick  now,  but  that  he  will 
get  sick  if  he  is  not  careful. 

1  Have=  receive. 

2  Place  the  Swedish  for  this  fair  first  in  the  sentence. 

3  Place  the  Swedish  for  in  school  first  in  the  sentence. 


XI  THE  ADJECTIVE  .      91 


LESSON   XI. 
THE  ADJECTIVE. 

147-  It  has  been  seen  (§§  77;  79)  that  adjectives 
used  with  nouns  (attributive  adjectives)  have  the  definite 
form  (-a)  when  the  noun  has  definite  form.  The  def- 
inite form  of  the  adjective  is  also  used  when  the  noun- 
has  definite  meaning  without  being  definite  in  form; 
namely,1 

(1)  after  genitives  and  possessive  pronouns;  as,  gossens 
(hans,  mill)  stora  bror  the    boy's   (his,  my)   big   brother; 

(2)  after  demonstrative  pronouns2;  as,  denna  langa  dag 
this  long  day; 

(3)  before  proper  names;  as,  den  hcliga  Birgit'ta  Saint 
(literally,  "the  holy")  Birgitta,  del  rika  Ame'rika  wealthy 
America; 

(4)  in  direct  address;  as,  kdra  syster  dear  sister. 
Note. —  Egen,    when    it  means   "own",    never  has  the  definite 

form3;  as,  gossens  egen  bror  the  boy's  own  brother,  ditt  eget*  hem 

1  Another  case  of  the  use  of  the  def.  adj.  with  a  noun  that  has  def.  mean- 
ing, though  indef.  in  form,  is  represented  by  examples  such  as  the  following, 
\vheretheadjectiveisaparticiple:  nyss  cite'rade  arfrete  the  work  just  cited, 
avan  angirna  flan  the  plan  stated  above,  enligt  bifogade  cirknlii'r  according 
to  the  enclosed  circular.  —  Similarly,  in  the  case  of  the  superlative.  Ex.:  I  Se- 
nasic  nuinmer  av  Stockholm*  Dagblad  !n  the  last  number  of  S.  D.  Han  nick  in 
tii  narmaste  ka/c'.  He  entered  the  nearest  cafe".  For  further  examples  see 
Lesson  XII. 

'2  Most  demonstratives  are  followed  by  a  noun  in  the  definite  form,  as 
is  also  </,-««,;  in  the  spoken  language.  If  an  adjective  modifies  the  noun,  the 
adjective  is  of  course  put  in  the  definite  form;  no  prepositive  definite 
article  is  used  in  this  case  (cf.  §§  77;  7S;  79).  See  §  39,  1.  and  Lesson  XXII. 

pronouns,  but  these  cases  are  of  infrequent  occurrence;  as,  jllK  okckliga 
wiinniska  I  unhappy  being;  i -silken  vadliga.  Surd  de  ej  deltogo  in  which  perilous 
journey  they  did  not  take  part. 

3  In  the  plural  there  is  no  distinction  between  the  def.  and  the  indef.  form. 

4.  Concerning  the  lorin  see  j  l.~,l,  1. 


92  THE  ADJECTIVE  XI 

your  own  home.  But  when  egen  means  "peculiar",  "strange",  it 
has  the  definite  form  in  the  regular  way,  as,  det  ar  eget,  att 
han  icke  kommer  it  is  strange  that  he  doesn't  come,  ett  eget  salt  a 
peculiar  manner,  hans  egna>  satt  his  peculiar  manner,  hans  egna 
stil  his  peculiar  handwriting,  but  hans  egen  stil  his  own  hand- 
writing. 

148.  In  all  other  cases  the  indefinite  form  is  used 
with  attributive  adjectives.  Predicate  adjectives  are 
always  put  in  the  indefinite  form. 

149-  We  have  seen  (§§  78;  79)  that  when  an  adjec- 
tive is  used  with  a  noun  in  the  definite  form,  the  pre- 
positive article  is  used  with  it.  Contrary  to  this  rule, 
however,  the  prepositive  article  is  in  a  large  number  of 
phrases  omitted  before  the  definite  adjective2  followed  by 
a  noun  in  the  definite  form,  particularly  in  certain  com- 
mon phrases,  and  when  the  adjective  expresses  location; 
as,  svenska  spraket  the  Swedish  language,  i  norra  delen 
in  the  northern  part,  Allan' tiska  ocea'nen  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  ForentcP  sta'terna  The  United  States,  Mindre  Ad- 
en Asia  Minor,  bestam'da  artikeln  the  definite  article, 
tredje*  gangen  the  third  time,  femte  upplagan  the  fifth 
edition,  i  fria  hi/ten  in  the  open  air,  gula  febern  the  yel- 
low fever,  i  sista  minu'ten  in  the  last  minute,  se  spoken 
mitt  pA  ljusa  dagen  see  ghosts  in  broad  daylight,  rena 
sanningen  the  plain  truth,  ligga  pa  bara  golvet\\^  on  the 
bare  floor,  i  bvre  vaningen  in  the  upper  story,  hbgra  si- 
dan  the  right  side,  Svenska  akademi'en  the  Swedish  Acad- 
emy, svenska  flaggan  the  Swedish  flag. 

1  Concerning  the  form  see  §  151.  6. 

2  Or  indeclinable  adjective  (see  §  153)  used  with  def.  meaning. 

3  The  second  syllable  of  Forenta  has  more  stress  than  eithe^   of  the    other 
two,  but  the  main  stress  in  the  group-compound  is  on    the    first   syllable   of 
stater  no.. 

4  On  the  other  hand,  a  cardinal  numeral,  -when  used  with  a  noun  in  the  def. 
form,  must  be  preceded  by   the   prepositive    article.     Kx.:    jltg  kofte  de  tv& 
harden  i  Gotebor'e.  I  bought  the  two  tables  in  Gothenburg. 


XI  THE  ADJECTIVE  93 

Note.  —  The  words  hel  whole,  halv  half,  and  sja.lv  himself,  herself, 
etc.,  are  never  preceded  by  the  prepositive  article  when  followed 
by  a  noun  in  the  definite  form;  as,  hela  dagen  the  whole  day, 
halva  mdnaden  half  the  month,  sjalva  drottningen  the  queen 
herself,  sjalva  doden  even  death. 

150.  Swedish    and    English  employ    different    methods 
of   expression   in   using  adjectives  with  the  noun  under- 
stood, English  in  most  cases  requiring  "one"  or  "ones" 
after  the  adjective.     Ex.:     Vill  du  ha  en  stor  bok?  —  Nej, 
jag  mil  ha  en  liten.     Do  you  want  a  large  book? — No,  I 

want  a  small  one.  Vill  du  icke  ha  den  stora?  Do  you 
not  want  the  large  one?  Jag  hade  rivit  sbnder  min  nya 
rock;  jag  fick  ga  ut  i  den  gam  la.  I  had  torn  my  new 
coat;  I  had  to  go  out  in  the  old  one. 

The  adjective  in  the  definite  form  preceded  by  the 
prepositive  article  may  be  used  as  a  noun.  See  further 
§  151,  8  b.  In  this  case  it  has  the  regular  genitive 
in  -s.  Ex.:  den  sjuka  the  sick  woman,  den  sjukas  feber 
the  fever  of  the  sick  woman. 

151.  Notes  on  the  inflection  of  adjectives: 

1.  Adjectives  ending  in    unstressed    -en   substitute   tl  for  n;    as, 
liten  small,  n.  litet;  oppen  open,  n.  oppet. 

2.  Those  ending  in  -d  substitute  for  this  (a)  -/,    if   a   consonant 
precedes  or  if  the  syllable  is  unstressed;  as,    blind  blind,  n.  blint; 
hard  hard,  n.  hdrt;  mild  mild,  n.  milt;   godhjartad  kindhearted, 
n.   godhjartat;    alskad  beloved,    n.   alskat;    (b)   -tt,    if  a  stressed 
vowel  precedes;    as,   god  good,  n.  gott;  glad  glad,  n.  glatt;    rod 
red,  n.  rott. 

3.  Those  ending  in  -dd    substitute  -tt  for  this;  as,  hogljudd  vo- 
ciferous, n.  hogljutt;  bebod'd  inhabited,  n.  bebot't. 


1  Cf.  §  30.  In  adjectives,  «  is  changed  to  t  only  after  e.  and  this  only  in 
unstressed  syllables,  not,  for  example,  in  ren  clean,  gctne'n  common,  low, 
allmiin  common.  In  pronouns  the  change  takes  place  also  after  stressed 
vowels  (dt-nna,  e/ftfa)  and  after  unstressed  vowels  other  than  e:  as,  nagon 
any,  11.  naeot:  annan  other,  n.  annat.  But  the  pronominal  adjective  sadan 
such,  has  n.  sat/ant. 


94  THE  ADJECTIVE 

4.  Adjectives  ending  in  -t  preceded  by  a  consonant  do  not  add 
/,   but   remain   unchanged;   as,  srart  black,  n.  srart ;  stolt  proud, 
n.  stolt;  intressan't  interesting,  n.  intressan'i ;  trott  tired,   n.   trott. 

When  the  adjective  ends  in  a  single  /  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
another  /  is  added;  as,  vit  white,  n.  vitt;  sot  sweet,  n.  soft.  In 
a  few  adjectives  of  foreign  origin,  however,  no  /  is  added;  as, 
aku't  acute,  n.  aku't;  konkre't  concrete,  n.  konkre't. 

5.  Adjectives  ending  in  a  stressed   vowel   double   the  /  of  the 
neuter  ending;  as,  bid  blue,  n.  bldtt;  ny  new,  n.  «y//;/rz  free,  n.  fritt. 

6.  Adjectives    ending  in   unstressed  -al,  -el,   -en,    -er  drop   the 
vowel   of  the   suffix   before   adding   the  -a  of  the  indefinite  plural 
and   of   the  definite     fonn;   as,  gammal  old,  indef.  plur.  and  def. 
gantla;   ddel  noble,  ddla;    op  pen  open,  oppna;    vacker  beautiful, 
vackra. 

7.  For   the   indef.  plur.  and  the  def.  of  bid  blue,  and  grd  gray, 
either  blda  or  bid,  grda  or  grd  may  be  used. 

8.  Instead  of  the  ending  -a  of  the  indefinite  plural  and  of   the 
definite  fonn,  -e  is  used: 

(a)  For  euphony,  after  -ad  (in  adjectives  and  past  participles1) 
and  -dst   (in    superlatives2);   as,  del  godhjartade  barnet  the  kind- 
hearted  child;  den  barhuvade  flickan  the  bareheaded  girl,  de  bru- 
nasfe  ogonen  the  brownest  eyes. 

(b)  When  adjectives   in  the   def.    sing,    used  as  nouns   refer   to 
persons  of  the  male  sex;  as,  den  sjuke  the  sick  man,  but  den  sju- 
ka  the  sick  woman;  den  gamle  the  old  man,   but   den  gam! a   the 
old  woman;  den  gamles  hus  the  old  man's  house.   So  also  when  the 
adjective  follows  the  word  it  modifies;  as,  Karl  den  store  Charles 
the  Great,    Karl  den  stores*  rike  the  empire  of  Charles  the  Great; 
Olov  den  helige    Saint   Olof    (literally,    "Olof  the  Holy"),    Oskar 
den  andre  Oscar  II,  Katari'na  din  andra  Catherine  II,  Sigrid  den 

fagra  Sigrid  the  Fair. 

(c)  In  the  written  language,  but  rarely  in  the  spoken  language, 
it   may   also   be  used  with  adjectives  whenever  the  noun  modified 
refers  to  a  person  of  the  male  sex.    This  substitution  is  more  com- 
mon   in   the  def.  sing,  than  in  the  def.  plur.,  while  in   the   indef. 
plur.  it  occurs  only  rarely,    in    the  more   elevated   style.    Ex.:    den 

1   Those  of  the  First  Weak  Conjugation;  see  Lesson  XIV. 

2,    Most  superlatives  end  in  -asl,  some,  however,  in  -st:  see  the  next  lesson. 

3  Observe  the  genitive;  cf.  §  150,  end,  and  §  67,  4. 


XI  THE  ADJECTIVE  95 

gode  kcjsarcn  the  good  emperor,  win  gode  van,  herr  Pettcrsson 
my  good  friend,  Mr.  Peterson,  den  skone  ynglingcn  the  beautiful 
youth,  den  Ivcklige  inanncn  the  happy  man,  den  (idle  hjiilten  the 
noble  hero,  kare  broder  dear  brother;  but  kiira  inoder  dear  moth- 
er, win  goda  syster  my  good  sister,  heliga  Birgit'ta  Saint  Bir- 
gitta. 

152.  The  forms  of  the  adjective  liten  small,  little,    are 
irregular;  for  the  plural,    a  different  root  is  used: 

INDEFINITE  DEFINITE 

Sing,  litcn,   \\.  litct  I  ilia 

Plur.  stud 

153.  Some  adjectives  are  indeclinable,  especially   those 
ending   in   -a,  -e,  -cs;  as,  bra  good,    well,    akta   genuine, 
ode  desolate,  friimmande  strange,  foreign,    utvartcs  exter- 
nal;   also    all   present   participles   and    all   comparatives, 
which    end    in    -e    (see  §§  163;  238).     Some    indeclinable 
adjectives  can  be  used  only  in   the  predicate;  as,    de  dro 
slakt  they  are  related. 

154.  ORTHOGRAPHY:  gammal,  gamla  (Phonology  §  1 8)  ; 
Mindrc  Aticn,  I\'arl  den  store,  etc.  (see  §  151,  8  b)  (§  24,  4). 

155.  PRONTNCIATION:    (a)  hard    (§  6,    note  2);    sjalv 
(§   13,  4);  //<;<,'/  (55   1 8);  halvt,  hcligt  (§18,  and   Phonolo- 
gy §38);  hbgljudd  (compound,  §  16);  intressan't,  konkrc't 
(Phonology  §  49,  3  b).  —  For  the  quantity  in  egna,  ddlay 
etc.,  see  Phonology  §  14  B  2  b.     Observe   the   change1  in 
the  quantity  of  the  vowel  in:  i'it,   ~citt;  ny,  nytt;  fri,  fritt. 
Observe  the  change1  of  the  vowel  in  quality   as   well    i;s 
in  quantity    in:  god,   gott;  glad,    glatt;    hog,     hbgt;    rod, 
roll;  sot,  soft;  bid,  blatt. —  (b)   Birgit'ta   (g  not  =—  j ) ;  ar- 
tik'cl  (§  6,  note  i);  ocea'n   (§   19,    i  b  i);  skbn   (§  14). 

150.   ACCENT:   (i)   Adjectives  ending  in   unstressed    -d 
and  -a-  (as  <?</<•/,  vacker)  have    the   acute    accent    in    the 

.i-rtiiiiiMhe  slioru-m-i!    v.'\vcl  before  the   double   consonant   see  §  6, 
note  2.     Observe  that  kiigt  irregularly  lias  a  short  vowel. 


96  THE  ADJECTIVE  XI 

indef.  sing.,  while  those  ending  in  unstressed  -en  (as 
bppen,  Uteri)  have  the  grave.  All  adjectives,  including 
those  that  have  the  acute  accent  in  the  indef.  sing., 
have  the  grave  accent  in  the  a-form1;  as,  adla,  vackra, 
bppna , '  gamla ,  bruna . 

However,  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  that  in 
the  uninflected  form  are  stressed  on  the  last  syllable, 
have  the  acute  accent  in  the  a-form;  as,  konkrdta,  be- 
botfda,  aku'ta,  intressan'ta. 

(2)  The  following  words  have  the  acute  accent:  (a) 
ddel,  Norge,  Ryssland.  —  (b)  artik'el,  sbnder,  atlan'tisk, 
Pettersson,  Mindre  Asien,  Sigrid. — Ovre  may  have  either 
the  acute  or  the  grave  accent. 

157-  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  Bear  in  mind  that  in  the 
spoken  language  -e  rarely  occurs  in  the  use  mentioned 
in  §  151,  8  c. 

(2)  The  use  of  the  def.  form   of   the   adjective    alone 
with  the   prepositive    article  (§  150,  end)    is   in    general 
less  common  in  the  spoken  than  in  the  written  language. 
Den  vise  fruktar  ej   doden    the   wise    man    does    not    fear 
death,  is  usually  changed  to  den,  som  ar  vis,  or,    en    vis 
tnanniska  (karl). 

(3)  In  the  spoken  language,  litet  (n.    of   liteii)  is  pro- 
nounced lite.  —  In  some  parts  of  Sweden,  final  t  of  -ct  is 
not  pronounced  in  the    neuter   of   adjectives;    as,    fge(f) 
own,  peculiar,  mule(f)  cloudy. 

(4)  In  the  spoken  language,  land,  especially    in    com- 
pounds, usually  has  the  final  d  silent  (cf.  §  134,  5);  as, 
Ryssland,    Vastergbtland . — In  easy    speech    the    final    d   is 
not  pronounced  in  blind. — Primarily  in  easy  speech,  helig, 
heligt  are  pronounced  heli,   helit. 

1  That  is,  in  the  indef.  plur.  and  in  the  def.  form.  The  substitution  of  -* 
for  -a  (see  §  151,  8)  does  not  change  the  accent. 


XI 


THE  ADJECTIVE 


97 


VOCABULARY. 

mild  wz'/a?,  gentle 

ny  tt^a> 

obeb  od  d x  uninha bitcd 

slakt  {indecl.  pred.  adj.}  re- 
lated; —  med  related  to 

stolt  proud;  —  over  proud  of 

satt  w.   (5)  manner,  way 

sot  sow/ 

trott  tired;  —  pa  //ra/  of 

trottna  (-ade)  become  tired- 
—  pa  get  tired  of 

ulvartes  (indecl. )  external 

ar  n.   (5)  jj/^«r 

adel  7/<?<5/<? 

akta  (indecl. )  genuine,  purer 
true 

a'lskad  beloved 

ode  (indecl.)  desolate,  deserted, 
uninhabited 

oppeii 


aku't  acute 
bebod'd  inhabited 
blind  blind 

egen  own;  peculiar,  strange 
fri  free 

frammande    (indecl.)    for- 
eign ,  strange 
for  too 
gammal  old 

godhjartad    kindhearted 
gra  gray 
halv  half 
hel  whole,  entire 
helig  //0/y 
hard  //art/ 

hogljudd    loud,    vociferous 
intressan't  interesting 
konkre't  concrete 
ka'r  dear 
land  n.  (5)    land,    country 

EXERCISE  XI. 

y4.  i.  Ar  kaffet  for  sott,  eller  ar  det  icke  sott  nog? 
2.  Amerika  ar  ett  fritt  land.  3.  Det  ar  mycket  intres- 
sant  att  resa  i  ett  frammande  land.  4.  Ett  blint  barn 
gick  pa  gatan  och  sjong.  5.  Sade  du,  att  du  inte  tycker 
om  bla  ogon?  6.  Selma  Lagerlof  reste  till  det  heliga 
landet.  Sedan  skrev  hon  "Jerusalem"2.  7.  Fadern  tyckte 
aldrig,  att  hans  eget  barn  var  for  hogljutt.  8.  En  sko- 
makare,  som  arbetar  hela  dagen,  ar  trott,  nar  aftonen 
kommer.  9.  Fonstren  voro  oppna  hela  kvallen.  10.  Pro- 

1  See  page  51,  foot-note  2. 

2  Jeru'salem. 


98  THE  ADJECTIVE  XI 

fessorn  ar  forfattare  till  ett  nytt  arbete,  som  ar  mycket 
intressant.  n.  Landet  lag  ode.  12.  Vattnet  ar  gott. 
13.  Ett  barn,  som  ar  trott,  sover  bra.  14.  Da  sommaren 
kommer,  trottna  barnen  pa  bockerna.  15.  Nar  jag 
kom  dit,  var  den  gamle  icke  hemma.  16.  Denna  lilla 
flicka  ar  endast  tva  ar  gammal.  17.  Om  clu  kommer, 
sa  bli  barnen  mycket  glada.  18.  Karl  och  hans  syster 
sutto  vid  bordet  och  laste  halva  dagen.  19.  Delta  trad 
ar  icke  manga  meter  hogt.  20.  Da  gossarna  blevo  stora, 
reste  de  till  frammande  land  och  kommo  aldrig  hem  igen. 
21.  Ett  kart  barn  har  manga  namn.  22.  Sitter  fageln 
vid  ditt  oppna  fonster?  23.  Detta  stora  rike,  som  ligger 
mellan  Norge1  och  Ryssland2,  ar  Sverige.  24.  Flickan 
ar  trott  pa  systems  lilla  docka.  25.  Var  icke  professorns 
nya  bok  intressant? — Jo,  men  icke  den  gamla.  26.  Lilla 
Stina  blev  glad,  da  hon  fick  den  vackra  hatten.  27.  Om 
denna  klocka  icke  ar  bra  nog,  sa  far  du  en  ny. 

B.  i.  The  gray  house  is  very  old  now.  It  was  new 
when  I  was  a  boy.  2.  His  little  girls  are  kind  hearted. 
3.  This  hat  is  too  large.  4.  When  they  were  small,  they 
lived  in  Vastergotland.  5.  John  and  Carl  are  not  related, 
are  they3? — No,  John  is  not  related  to  Carl.  6.  The 
soldiers  are  proud  of  the  noble  king.  7.  Do  you  not 
think  that  Swedish  books  are  interesting?  8.  Mr.  L,und- 
gren  is  a  true  Swede.  9.  The  professor  found  the  land 
uninhabited.  10.  He  always  thought  that  his  own  work 
was  not  good  enough,  n.  I  have  a  dear  friend  who  is 
very  sick.  12.  The  kindhearted  little  boy  wanted  to 
give  the  old  woman  a  crown.  13.  Have  you  your  blue 
book  in  school?  14.  This  large  city  has  many  long  streets. 
15.  Is  your  friend's  new  house  high?  16.  Do  you  think 

1    Norway* 

O       r> 

3  Render  are  they  by  "val".     The  word-order  is  "aro  val  icke". 


XI  THE  ADJECTIVE  99 

that  it  is  going  to  rain  all1  day?  17.  The  new  teacher's 
old  books  were  interesting.  18.  He  always  has  one 
window  open.  19.  Where  did  you  find  these  pretty 
flowers?  20.  Afterwards  the  island  lay  deserted.  21.  The 
old  man's  house  is  small.  22.  Little  Carl  has  beau- 
tiful eyes.  23.  Is  it  not  strange  that  he  thinks  that  his 
own  name  is  not  pretty?  24.  I  received  an  interesting 
letter  this  morning. 

1   Use  a  form  of  "hel". 


100  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  XII 


LESSON   XII. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

158.  The  comparative  is  made  by  adding  -are,  and  the 
superlative  by  adding  -ast,  to  the  uninflected  form  of 
the  positive;  as,  rik  rich,  comp.  rikare,  superl.  rikast. 

Note.  —  i.  Adjectives  ending  in  unstressed  -el,  -en,  -er  drop 
the  vowel  of  the  guffix  before  adding  -are  or  -ast;  as,  adel  noble, 
cidlare,  adlast;  oppen  open,  oppnare,  oppnast;  vacker  beautiful, 
vackrare,  vackrast. 

2.  Also  a  few  indeclinable  adjectives  ending  in  unstressed  -a 
may  be  compared.  They  drop  -a  before  adding  -are,  -ast;  as,  noga 
particular,  nogare,  nogast;  akta  genuine,  aktare,  aktast. — Nara 
near,  close,  is  irregular,  having  the  forms,  comp.  narm(a)rel, 
superl.  narm(a]stl  or  nast. 

159-  In   the    following    adjectives     the    comparative    is 
made  by  adding  -re,  and  the   superlative   by    adding  -st. 
All  these  modify  (see  §  n)  the  root-vowel  of  the    posi- 
tive if  this  is  hard. 

grov  coarse,  thick           grbvre  grbvst 

Jidg  high,  tall                  hog  re  hbgst 

lag  low                               liigre  liigst 

lang  long                           liingre  langst 

stor  large,  great  storre  stbrst 

trang  tight,  narrow         trangre  trangst 

tung  heavy  tyngre  tyngsl 

ung  young  yngre  }'Hgst 

Note.  —When  lag  signifies  "low"  in  a  moral  sense,  it  is  com- 
pared regularly,  Idgare,  lagast.  Also  grov  and  trang  sometimes 
have  -are,  -ast. 

160-  Two  adjectives  in  forming  their  comparative  add 
-rre,    before  which  the  long    vowel    of    the    positive     is 
shortened  and  modified: 


XII 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 


101 


fa,  plur.,  few  farre 

smd1,  plur.,  small  smdrre 

161.  A  few   adjectives   employ  a  different  root  for  the 
comparative  and  superlative: 

god  good  1 

bra  good,  wellj 
dalig  poor,  bad 

ond  angry,  evil      1 
,   6,  J  '  L 

<?/a£  bad,  naughty  j 

gammal  old 
///r;*  small 
mycken  much 


bast 

samst 

varst 


mindre 
mer(a) 


manga,  plur.,  many 


,  fle 


didst 
minst 
mest 
(de)  fiesta 


Note.  —  God,  in  the  meaning  "good  (tasting)",  and  ond,  when 
it  means  "angry",  are  compared  godare,  godast,  ondare,  ondast- 
Also  elak,  and,  rarely,  ddlig  may  have  the  forms  in  -are,  -ast. 

162.  A  few  comparatives  and  superlatives,  chiefly  such 
as  designate  place,  have  no  positive.  They  are  derived 
from  roots  not  used  as  adjectives.  In  these  the  compara- 
tive ends  in  -re,  and,  in  almost  all,  the  superlative  ends  in 
-rst.  In  framre,  framst,  yttre,  ytterst,  bvre  and  overst  a 
hard  vowel  has  been  modified.  The  principal  ones  are: 


(bak  hind,  back) 
(bort  away,  off) 
(fram  forward) 
(fore  before) 
(in  in) 
(ned  down) 
(under  under) 
(ut  out) 
(pvan  above) 


bakre  rear,  posterior  bakerst 

bortre  farther  borterst 

framre  fore,  anterior  framst 

fbrre  (-a)  former  fbrst 
inre  inner  innerst 

nedre  lower,  nether  nederst 
undre  lower  underst 

yttre  outer  ytterst 

bvre  upper  overst 


1  Stna  is  used  as  the  plural  of  liten  (see  §  152).     Sma  may  also  have  mindre. 
inst  as  its  comparative  and  superlative;  cf.  §  161. 


102  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 

Also  the  comparative  se(d)narel  latter,  later,  and  the 
superlative  se(d}nast  latest,  or  sist  last,  latest-  employing 
the  endings  -are,  -ast,  are  derived  from  a  root  not  used  as 
an  adjective,  sedan,  sen  (vowel  usually  short)  afterwards. 

163-  The  comparative  is  indeclinable  (see  §  153);  as, 
en  biittre  stol,  ett  battre  hits,  battre  stolar,  de  battre  stolarna. 

When  used  as  a  noun  after  the  prepositive  article 
(cf.  §  150),  the  comparative  adds  -s  in  the  genitive.  Ex.: 
Den  yngres  arbete  ar  bast.  The  work  of  the  younger  is  best. 

164.  When  used  as  a  predicate  adjective  (not  pre- 
ceded by  the  prepositive  article),  the  superlative  has  its 
original  form  (-ast,  -st)  and  is  invariable.  Ex.:  Dcnna 
blomma  (detfa  barn}  ar  vackrast.  This  flower  (this  child) 
is  the  prettiest .  Dessa  blommor  dro  vackrast.  These  flowers 
are  the  prettiest. 

In  all  other  cases,  i.  e.,  when  used  attributively,  or  alone 
after  the  prepositive  article,  superlatives  in  -ast  add  -e2 
(see  §  151,  8  a),  those  in  -st  add  -a1  (or  -e;  see  §  151,  8  b 
andc).  When  used  substantively,  it  has  the  regular 
ending  -5  in  the  genitive.  Ex.:  Den  vitaste  blomman  ar 
den  vackraste.  The  whitest  flower  is  the  prettiest.  Det 
stdrsta  huset  ar  icke  alltid  det  bdsta.  The  largest  house  is  not 
always  the  best.  Svens  yngsta  syster  ar  tre  ar.  Sven's 
youngest  sister  is  three  years  old.  Han  ar  den  dldste  av 
oss.  He  is  the  oldest  of  us.  Det  dldsta  av  barnen  ar 
en  gosse.  The  oldest  of  the  children  is  a  boy.  Ndrmaste 
granne  bodde  pa  en  mils  avstand.  The  nearest  neighbor 
lived  a  mile  away.  I senaste  mimmer  av  Stockholms  Dag- 

1  This  word,  which  is  opposite  in  meaning  to  f'drre,  farst.  should  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  sen  (vowel  long)  late,  tardy,  slow,    comp.    saiarr 
superl.  senast. 

2  These  forms  of  the  superlative  are  really  the  definite  form  of  the  adjec- 
tive, but   observe  the  extended  use  of  the  definite  form   of  the  superlative 
as  illustrated  in  the  examples. 


XII  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  103 

blad.  In  the  last  number  of  S.  D.  Ndsta  manad  next 
month,  ett  sista  forso'k  a  final  trial.  In  cases  such  as  the 
last,  the  prepositive  article  is  usually  inserted  between 
the  indef.  article  and  the  adjective;  as,  en  den  skbnaste 
ntsikt  a  most  beautiful  view. 

165.  The  comparative  and  superlative  ideas  may  be,  but 
usually  are  not,  expressed  by  using  mera  and  mest  with 
the  positive  in   the   case   of   all   adjectives,    though    less 
frequently  those  whose  comparative  ends  in  -re. 

Some  adjectives,1  especially  those  of  more  than  one  syl- 
lable ending  in  -ad,  -«?,  -se,  -es,  -isk,  and  all  participles,  both 
present  and  past,  never  have  the  endings  of  comparison, 
but  use  only  mer(a\  mest;  as,  godhjlirtad  kindhearted, 
mcr(a)  godhjiirtad,  mest  godhjdrtad;  partisk  partial,  mer(a) 
partisk,  mest  partisk;  ode  desolate,  mer(a)  ode,  mest  ode. 

166.  The  superlative  is  often  used  of  two  objects  com- 
pared.    Ex.:     Hans   hogra    hand    dr  starkast.     His  right 
hand  is  the  stronger.      Vilken  av  dina  tva  soner  ar  yngst? 
Which  of  your  two  sons  is  the  younger?     Den  mest  lovan- 
de  sokanden  av  de  tva  (bland  de  tre)  the  most   promising 
of  the  two   (three)   applicants;  den  storsta  delen  av  applet 
(also  when   cut   into   two  pieces)  the  larger  half  of  the 
apple. 

167-  The  comparative  and  the  superlative  are  some- 
times used  absolutely2,  without  any  idea  of  real  com- 
parison, to  denote  a  rather  high  degree  and  a  very  high 
degree,  respectively.  Superlatives  formed  with  mest  can 
also  be  so  used,  but  rarely  comparatives  with  mer(a). 
Superlatives  used  absolutely  may  or  may  not  be  pre- 

1  All  indeclinable  adjectives,  with  the  exception  of  those  that  end  in  -a. 
{cf.  §  158,  note  2),  belong  here;  also  many  that  can  be  declined. 

2  This  use  is  of  much  less  frequent  occurrence  in  English.  Ex.:  the  lower 
classes,  higher  education,  Greater  New  York.  Your  task  is  a  most  arduous 
one.  See  also  the  translation  of  the  Swedish  examples. 


104  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  XII 

ceded  by  the  prepositive  definite  article,  but  the  accom- 
panying noun  almost  always  has  the  indefinite  form. 
Ex.:  En  Idngre  promena'd  a  (rather)  long  walk,  en  aldre 
herre  an  elderly  gentleman,  de  nyare  spraken  modern 
languages.  Denna  sanning  ar  accepte'rad  av  de  flesta  mera 
framstaende  psykolo'ger.  This  truth  is  accepted  by  most 
of  the  leading  psychologists.  Med  sforsta  rioje  with  the 
greatest  pleasure,  baste  broder  dear  brother  (friend), 
Det  gjorde  inte  den  minsta  nytta.  It  didn't  do  the  least 
good.  De  aro  de  bdsta  vanner.  They  are  the  best  of 
friends.  Delta  gjorde  han  i  sforsta  valmening.  He  did 
this  with  the  best  of  intentions.  Han  sade  henne  nagra 
de  utsbktaste  artigheter.  He  paid  her  some  very  fine  com- 
pliments. En  den  mest  h&rdnackade  kamp  a  most  stub- 
born fight. 

168.  PRONUNCIATION:  (a)1  ovan  (§  9,  3  b);  fram 
(§  6,  note  i);  didst  (§  16  c);  kogst  (§  18);  grovt,  grbvst, 
lagt,  lagst  (§  18,  and  Phonology  §  38).  —  Observe  the 
shortened  vowel  in  stbrre,  sforst,  farre,  smarre;  also  inforre, 
yttre,  flest,  mest.  In  kogst  (and  fbrre)  there  is  a  change 
both  in  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  b.  —  (b)  gjorde 
(§§  15;  16);  acccpte'ra  (§  19,  i  b  2);  psykolo'g  (§  9,  3  b, 
and  Phonology  §  50,  note  2);  noje  (§  6,  note  i). 

169-  ACCENT:  (i)  Dissyllabic  comparatives  formed  with 
-re  or  -rre  have  the  acute  accent,  except  that  forre  has 
the  grave  accent,  and  nedre,  undre  and  bvre  may  have 
either  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent. — Flera  and  mera 
rarely  have  the  acute  accent. — Superlatives  ending  in 
-erst  have  either  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent. 

(2)  The  following  words  have  the  acute  accent:  (a)  for- 
sb'ka,  promene'ra,  partisk,  Danmark,  Finland,  Oland* 
—  (b)  accepte'ra,  nummer. 

1  Including  words  prominent  in  the  lesson. 


XII 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 


170.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  Ned  down,  is  used  in 
the  written  language,  but  tier  primarily  in  the  spoken 
language. 

(2)  Taga  and  pres.  sing,   tager    are  employed    in    the 
written  language;  ta,  tar,  primarily    in    the    spoken    lan- 
guage. 

(3)  In  the  spoken  language,  mycket  (n.  of  mycken}    is 
pronounced  my  eke;  cf.  §    157,  3. 

(4)  In    easy    speech,    med,  dalig,   dalig  t,    ond  are   pro- 
nounced ma,  dali,  ddlit,    onn.  —  Grovt   is    in    easy    speech 
often  pronounced  groft  (vowel  short,  quality  unchanged). 
—  Concerning  Finland  and  Gland  see  §  157,  4. 

VOCABULARY. 

bortre  farther  noje  n.  (4)  pleasure 

dalig  poor,  bad  ond  angry,  evil;  —  pa  angry  at 

do  {irregular;  pres.  sing.       partisk  partial,  prejudiced 

promena'd(3)pr0menade,  walk 

promene'ra  (-ade)  walk,  prom- 
enade 

stilla  (indecl.')   still,  quiet 

ta(ga)   (tog)   take 

trang  tight,  narrow 

tung  heavy 

ung  young 

ut1  out;  ga  ut  och  ga  go  out 
for  a  walk 

ute1  out,  out  of  doors 

an  than 

annu  still,  yet 

ovre  tipper 


-r;  past  dog)   die 
elak  bad,  naughty 
fa,  plur.,  few 
forso'k  n.(5)  attempt,  trial 
forso'ka  (-te)  try,  attempt 
grov    coarse,    thick,     large 
hur(u)   how 
lag  low 
med  with 

mot    against,     to,     toward 
m  y  eke  n  much 
noga  (indccl.)    particular, 

accurate 

namligen  namely 
nara  (indecl.}  near,  close 

1  For  the  distinction    in    meaning   between    "ut"    and    "ute",    see   §  172, 
2,  note. 


106  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  XII 

EXERCISE  XII.1 

A.  i.  Oland    och    Gottland    aro    Sveriges  storsta  oar. 
2.  Ar  du  icke  stolt  over  att2  vara  svensk?      3.    Den  lille 
gosseti  blev  ond  pa  brodern.     4.  Vara  trad  aro  grovre  an 
era.     5.  Det   ar   battre  att  vara  den  forste  an  den    siste. 
6.  Stockholm  ar  den  storsta  av  Sveriges  stader.     7.  Yiit- 
teru  liar  endast  en  storre  6,  namligen  Visingso3.     8.   Nu  ar 
han  forsiktigare.     Darfor  ar  han  aveu  friskare.     9.     Sveii 
gick    med    Olov   till    narmaste    stad    for    att4    kopa     en 
battre  hast.     10.  Bade  Sverige  och  Finland  aro  rikare  pa 
sjoar  an  Danmark5  och    Norge6.      n.  Skomakaren    bor  i 
det   bortersta   huset.     12.  Den   sjuka   ar  samre  i  dag  an 
hon  var  i  gar.     13.  Da  Strindberg  dog,  var  han  Sveriges 
storste  forfattare.    14.  Karls  aldsta  syster  och  hans  yngsta 
bror  aro  ute  och  ga.    15.    Det  roda  huset  ar  lagst.    16.    De 
fiesta   gossarna   i   skolan    aro  bade   aldre   och   storre    an. 
Johan.     17.  Skola  vi  icke  ga  ut  och  ga?     18.  Den  framste 
gossen  ar  storst.     19.  Tog  du  icke  en  langre  promenad  i 
dag  an  i  gar?     20.   Han  ar  elak  mot  system,  men  annu 
varre  mot  den  frammande  gossen.     21.  Sedan    han    kom 
hit,  ar    han  bade  friskare  och  gladare.     22.   De  voro  ute 
och   promenerade    hela    kvallen.      23.    Jag    vill    ha    den 
oversta  boken. 

B.  i.  Your  name  is  still   longer    than    mine.     2.  The 
highest    trees    are   not    always  the  thickest.     3.   Glass  is 
heavier  than  water.     4.  In  old  cities  the  streets  are  often 
narrow.     5.  The    best    butter  is   not    too    good.     6.  The 

1  This  exercise  contains  some  words  given  in  the  discussion  of  the  gram- 


2  When  Swedish  uses  a  preposicion  followed  by  "att"  and   the  infinitive, 
English   usually   has    a   preposition   with   the   gerund,    but   sometimes    an. 
infinitive. 

3  Pronounced  "Visingso'''  or  "Vi'singso". 

4  "For  att"  with  the  infinitive  denotes  purpose. 

5  Denmark. 
*>  Norway. 


XII  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  107 

white  doves  are  the  prettiest.  7.  This  chair  is  the 
heaviest  that  I  have.  8.  Do  j'ou  think  that  your  old 
house  is  more  beautiful  than  my  new  one?  9.  Sweden 
is  larger  than  Norway,  but  Norway  is  more  beautiful. 
10.  Now  the  days  are  longer  than  the  nights,  but  soon 
the  nights  will  be  the  longer,  n.  These  two  apples 
are  the  reddest.  12.  How  many  names  have  you?  — 
Only  two. — Then  I  have  more  names  than  you.  13.  His 
fever  is  worse  again  to-day.  14.  These  trees  are  the 
smallest.  15.  I  shall  go  if  the  weather  becomes  better. 
1 6.  English  has  more  neuters  than  Swedish.  17.  Do  you 
wish  to  go  out  for  a  walk?  18.  The  black  table  is 
lower  than  the  brown  one.  19.  This  author  thinks  that 
his  own  books  are  the  most  interesting.  20.  Their  oldest 
daughter  is  only  five  years  old.  21.  Why  is  the  shoe- 
maker more  particular  with  your  shoes  than  with  mine? 
22.  The  lake  became  more  quiet  in  the  evening.  23.  I 
thought  I  was  old  then,  but  now  I  am  still  older. 


108  ADVERBS 

LESSON  XIII. 
ADVERBS. 

171-  Of  most  adjectives,  the  form  in  -/  may  be  used  as 
an  adverb;  as,  adel  noble,  adelt  nobly;  vacker  beautiful,  vac- 
kert  beautifully;  sot  sweet,  sbtt  sweetly;  mycken  much, 
mycket  much,  very;  liten  small,  litet  a  little. 

172.  Besides  these  adverbs  there  are  a  great  many 
others,  formed  variously: 

1.  Primitive  adverbs  and  their  compounds;   as,   nej  no, 
nu  now,  har  here,  bort  away,  off,  hari  herein.      Adverbs 
compounded  with  har,  ddr,  var  are  very  numerous. 

Note.  —  I.  In  general,  compound  adverbs  of  the  kind  mentioned 
in  §  172,  i,  have  the  main  stress  on  the  last  syllable  when  they 
stand  at  the  end  of  a  declarative  sentence;  as,  hari' ,  dart'.  Other- 
wise the  first  syllable  is  stressed. 

2.  Pronominal  adverbs  compounded  with  a  preposition  are  often 
used  in  place  of  a  pronoun  governed  by  a  preposition.     These  com- 
pounds are,   however,   not  used  in    referring   to   persons,    and    are 
used    less   freely  in  referring  to  a  plural    than  to  a  singular  noun. 
Ex.:  (Personal)  Jag  har  ej  hort  ndgot  ddrom.     I  have   not   heard 
anything  about  it.     (Demonstrative)  Daremot  ar  intet  att    itiz'an- 
da.    There  is  nothing  to  say  against  that.     Harav  foljer,   att   tri- 
anglarna  maste  vara  kongruen'ta.     From  this  it    follows  that  the 
triangles  must  be  congruent.     Dari  har  han  ratt.     He  is  right  in 
that.     (Interrogative,    direct    and    indirect)      Varpa    beror    detta? 
What  is  the  cause  of  this?  (Literally,  "On  what  does  this  depend?") 
Del  ar  icke  liitt  att  saga,  vari   denna  skillnad  besta'r.     It  is  not 
easy  to  say  what  this  difference  consists   of.     (Relative)  Detta   ar 
en  frdga,  varom  i  senare  tid  mycket  talats.    This  is   a   question 
about  which  much  has  recently  been  said.     Egil  larde  sina  soner 
manga  idrotter,  vari  han  sjiilv  var  mastare.     Egil  taught  his  sons 
many  sports  in  which  he  himself  excelled. 

2.  Adverbs  formed  with  various  suffixes;  as,  -a  (as  hem- 
ma  at  home);  -e  (lite  out);  -an  {redan  already);  -om 


XIII  ADVERBS,  COMPARISON  109 

(stiindom  at  times);  -deles  (alldeles  entirely);  -ledes  (sdledes 
consequently);  -ligen  (natnlig'en  namely);  -lunda  (^annor- 
lunda  differently);  -vis  (lyckligtvis  fortunately). 

Note.  —  Some  adverbs  ending  in  -a,  -e  and  denoting  place  where, 
are  formed  from  adverbs  denoting  place  to  which;  as,  hem  home, 
hemma  at  home;  bort  away,  off,  forth,  borta  away;  ut  out,  ute 
out,  out  of  doors;  in  in,  inne  within,  in  the  house;  upp  up,  uppe 
up,  above;  ned,  ner  down,  nere  down,  below;  fram  forth,  to  one's 
destination,  framme  there,  at  one's  destination. 

3.  A  number  of  adverbs,  especially  compounds,  end  in 
-s,  which  is  really  the  genitive  ending.  These  are  not  felt 
as  genitives,  but  as  adverbs.  Ex.:  alls,  in  the  expres- 
sions alls  icke  or  icke  alls  not  at  all;  dels  partly;  Jmndratals 
by  hundreds;  hur  dag's  (at)  what  time  (literally,  "how 
of  the  day");  liggdags  bed-time;  halvvdgs  half-way. 

In  adverbial  expressions  of  time,  the  preposition  i  is  in 
a  few  cases  followed  by  an  adverbial  genitive  in  the 
indefinite  singular.  These  expressions  refer  to  the  latest 
previous  time  of  the  kind  denoted  by  the  noun.  Only 
certain  words  can  be  used  in  this  way,  not,  for  example, 
•vecka  week,  manad  month,  ar  year.  Instead  of  -s,  the 
endings  -as,  -se  are  used  in  some  words.  Ex.:  i  sbndags 
(mandags,  tisdags,  onsdags,  torsdags,  fredags,  Ibrdags) 
last  Sunday  (Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  Thursday, 
Friday,  Saturday);  i  somras  (/wstas,  vintras,  vdras*)  last 
summer  (autumn,  winter,  spring),  from  sommar,  host, 
vinter,  var;  i  julas  last  Christmas,  from  jul;  i  morse1  this 
(past)  morning,  from  morgon. 

COMPARISON  OF   ADVERBS. 

173.  Almost  all  adverbs  formed  by  adding  -t  to  the 
uninflected  form  of  the  adjective  may  be  compared. 
Their  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  the  same  as  the 
comparatives  and  superlatives  (uninflected  form)  of  the 


1 10  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS  XIII 

corresponding  adjectives;  as,  adelt  nobly,  ddlare  more 
nobly,  ddlast  most  nobly;  sott  sweetly,  sbtare,  sbtast;  hbgt 
high,  loudly,  hbgre,  hogst;  langt  far,  Idngre1,  Idngst; 
mycket  much,  very,  mera,  mest;  gott  well,  bdttre,  bast. 

Most  of  the  indeclinable  adjectives  ending  in  unstressed 
-a,  and  having  forms  of  comparison,  are  also  used  as 
adverbs.  Their  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  corresponding  adjectives;  as,  noga 
accurately,  nogare,  nogast;  ndra  near,  ?idrm(a)re2, 
ndrm(a}st^;  sakta  slowly,  saktare,  saktast. 

174-  Of  other  adverbs,  only  a  few  can  be  compared: 

1.  fort  fast,  quickly  fortarc  fortast 
Idnge  long,  a  long  time    Idngre1  Idngst 
ofta  often                                oftare  oftast 

2.  The  following  employ  a  different  root3  for  the  com- 
parative and  superlative: 

brct  welll 

„  \  battre*  bast 

val  wellj 

gdrna  gladly  hellre  heist 

ilia  badly  vdrre  vdrst 

3.  The   superlative   forms   given   in    §  162    are  in   the 
uninflected    form    used    also  as  adverbs.     Of   sedan ,  both 
the   comparative  and  the  superlative   forms    are   used    as 
adverbs.6    The  same  is  true  of  fbrst,    of    which    the    ad- 
verbial comparative  is  fbrr,  and  not  forre. 

1  Llingreis  the  comparative  both  of  the  adjective  lang  (see  §  159),  and  of 
the  adverbs  langt  far  (see  §  173)  and   lunge  long  (§  174). 

2  See  page  100,  foot-note. 

3  Adverbs  ending  in -/ that  employ  a  different    root   for   the  comparative 
and  superlative  are  included  under  §  173. 

4?  Bra  is    also  used  in  the   sense  of  '"very",  "rather",  "prettv".     In  this 

5  Satire  is  the  comparative  both  of  the  adjectives  faj,  bra,  and  of  the 
adverbs  eott,  bra,  viil:  see  §§  161;  173. 

6  Cf.  page  102,  foot-note  1.  The  adverb  corresponding  to  sen  late,  tardy, 
slow,  is  sent,  senare,  senast. 


XIII  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS  III 

Note.— The  other  adverbs  capable  of  the  idea  of  comparison 
have  mera,  mest.  Ex.:  De  fiesta  tala  tnycket  mera  ologiskt  &n 
dc  sjalva  tro.  Most  people  talk  much  more  illogically  than  they 
themselves  believe. 

175.  EXPRESSIONS  USED  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  THE 
COMPARATIVE  AND  SUPERLATIVE  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND 
ADVERBS.  Allt  followed  by  a  repeated  (or  single)  com- 
parative is  equivalent  to  the  doubled  comparative  of 
English,  denoting  an  increasing  degree.  Ex.:  Han  blir 
allt  forstdn'digare  mcd  tiden.  He  is  becoming  more  and 
more  sensible  as  time  passes.  Den  blev  allt  mindre  och 
mindre.  It  became  smaller  and  smaller. 

The  adverbial  "the",  used  with  comparatives,  is  ren- 
dered by  desto  or  dess;  the  correlatives  "the  .  .  .  the", 
by  ju  .  .  .  dess,  desto  or  (more  rarely)  ju.  The  first 
clause  (introduced  by  the  adverb  ju~),  being  the  subor- 
dinate clause,  does  not  have  inverted  order;  the  second 
clause  (introduced  by  one  of  the  adverbs  dess,  desto,  jii}  is 
the  main  clause  and  has  inverted  order.  Ex.:  Ju  liingre 
de  betrak'tade  jatten,  desto  stbrre  syntes  han  for  deras  ogon, 
och  desto  mindre  och  kraftlosare  fbrefbllo  de  sig  sjalva.  The 
longer  they  looked  at  the  giant,  the  larger  he  appeared 
to  their  eyes,  and  the  smaller  and  weaker  they  felt.  Ju 
forr,  dess  hellre  the  sooner  the  better,  dess  bdttre  so  much 
the  better.  Observe  also  icke  desto  mindre  nevertheless. 

Allra  followed  by  the  superlative  is  equivalent  to  the 
superlative  with  "of  all",  to  "very"  followed  by  the 
superlative,  and  to  the  simple  superlative,  in  English; 
as,  den  allra  stbrsta  boken  the  largest  book  of  all,  min 
allra  biista  hast  my  very  best  horse,  allra  fbrst  first  of 
all,  det  allra  bdsta  the  very  best,  den  allra  hcligaste 
the  most  holy,  de  allra  flesta  most  of  them. 

Equality  is  expressed  by  lika  (likasa~)  .  .  .  som  (just) 
as  ...  as,  or,  primarily  after  a  negative,  sd  .  .  .  som  so  ... 


112  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS  XIII 

as.  Ex.:  Johan  ar  lika  gammal  som  Karl.  John  is  as 
old  as  Carl.  Han  ar  icke  sa  stor  som  Karl.  He  is  not 
so  large  as  Carl.  En  sten  sa  stor  som  ett  hus  a  stone  as 
large  as  a  house.  Observe  the  phrase  sa  snart  som  mbj- 
ligt  as  soon  as  possible.  Som  may  be  omitted  in  a  num- 
ber of  cases.  Ex.:  Sa  fort  du  kan  as  soon  as  you  can,  sA 
mycket  han  vill  as  much  as  he  wants  to.  Du  far  taga  sa 
manga  du,  behb'ver.  You  may  take  as  many  as  you  need. 
A  lower  degree  is  expressed  by  mindre  less,  and  minst 
least,  with  the  positive,  as  in  English. 

176-  ORTHOGRAPHY:  fram,  framrne;  hem,    hemma;  in, 
inne,  darinne     (Phonology  §   18).     Concerning   jul,    son- 
dag,  mandag,  etc.,  see  §  24,  3. 

177-  PRONUNCIATION:    (a)  fort  (§  9,  3  a);     lyckligtvis, 
htir  dag's,  liggdags,    halvvags,     till    dbd's,    sbndags    (inan- 
dags,   etc.)   (§  18,  and  Phonology  §38). — The  vowel  in 
dags  {-dags},  -vags,  dbds  is    short    in    these   expressions, 
though    long    in    dag,    etc.  —  (b)    kongruen't   (Phonology 
§  49,  3  b);  ologiskt  (second  o,  §  9,  3  b). 

178-  ACCENT:     (i)  The  accent  of  dissyllabic    compara- 
tives ending  in  -re  and  superlatives  in  -erst  is    the   same 
in  the  case  of  adverbs  as  in  adjectives.     See  §  169,   i. 

(2)  The  adverbial  compounds  referred  to  in  §  172,    i, 
and  notes,  have  the  acute  accent. 

(3)  The  following  words  have  the  acute  accent:  (a)  mn- 
ter  and  the  names  of    the  days  of  the  week  (sbndag,  sbn- 
dags,  etc.). — Desto,    allra    and    salcdes    usually   have  the 
grave  accent.  —  (b)   betrak'ta,  fbrstan'dig,  behb'va. 

179-  COLLOQUIALISMS:    (i)   In    the   spoken    language, 
oppe  is  in  the  greater  part  of  Sweden  almost  always  used 
in  place  of  uppe,  as  opp  for  upp.     So  ner,  which  is  some- 
times found  also  in  the  written  language,  particularly  in 
dialog,  is  used  for  ned;  but  nere  has  no  alternative  form. 


XIII 


ADVERBS 


(2)  Most  adverbial  compounds  (see  §  172,  i,  and  notes) 
are  avoided  in  the  spoken  language.     Ddri  har  han  rdtt 
is  in  the  spoken  language  usually  expressed  det  har  han 
rdtt  i. 

(3)  Dess,  which  is  also  very    common    in    the    written 
language,  is  generally  used    in    the   spoken    language   in 
place  of  dcsto. — The    use  of  ju   in   the  principal   clause 
(and   therefore    in    both    clauses,    since  ju    regularly  in- 
troduces the  subordinate  clause)    belongs   to  the    spoken 
language,  and  is  particularly  common  in  proverbs. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  In  the  vocabularies,  adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  by 
adding  -t  will  not  be  given  if  the  adjectives  from  which  they  are 
derived  are  already  known. 

alldeles  entirely 

allra  of  all,  very 

alls  at  all 

allt  more  and  more 

annorlunda  differently} 

bort  away,  off 

borta  away;  da'r  borta 
over  there 

dels  partly 

dess,  desto  the   (adv.} 

dari  in  that 

dod  dead;  (2)  death;  till 
dods1  to  death,  fatal 

fort  fast,  quickly 

fram  forth,  to  one's  desti- 
nation;  fram  till  up  to 

framme  there,  arrived,  at 
one's  destination 


garna  gladly,  fain 
halvvags  half-way 
hundratals  by  hundreds; 

hundreds  of 

hur  dag's  {at}  what  time 
hari  in  this 
host  (2)   autumn;  i  host 

this  autumn;  i  -as  last 

autumn 
ilia  bad,   badly 
in  in;  in  i  into 
inne  within,  in  the  house; 

inne  i  in;  da'r  inne  in 

there,  within 
ju  the  {adv.} 
liggdags  bed-time 
lika,  likasa  (just}  as 
lyckligtvis  fortunately 


1    See  §  122. 


H4  ADVERBS 

lange  long,  for  a  long  time  sa  so,  thus 

morse;  i  morse  this  (past}  saledes  thus,  accordingly 

morning  salunda  thus,  in  this  manner 

mycket  much  uppe  up 

mojlig  possible  varom     about     which,      about 

ned,  ner  down  what 

nere  down  vecka  (1)  week 

redan  already  vinter    (2)    winter;    i  —  this 

ratt  right;  ha(va)  ratt  be  winter;  i  vintras  last  winter 

right  var    (2)    spring;    i     var    this 

sakta  (hided.}  slow;  adv.,  spring;     i    -as    last    spring 

slowly  val  well 
stundom  at  times 

The  names  of  the  days1  of  the  week  are: 

sondag     Sunday  torsdag   Thursday 

mandag  Monday  fredag    Friday 

tisdag       Tuesday  lordag     Saturday 
onsdag     Wednesday 

EXERCISE  XIII. 

A.  i.  Borta  bra,  men  hemraa  bast.  2.  Faglarna 
sjdngo  vackert.  3.  Sven  och  hans  far  gingo  bort.  Mo- 
dern och  system  voro  hemma  hela  dagen.  4.  Det  blir 
snart  host.  5.  I  sondags  reste  jag  till  Malmo.  Jag  kom 
fram  klockan  atta  pa  morgonen.  Sa  snart  jag  kom  fram, 
gick  jag  till  min  gamle  van  Nyblom.  L,yckligtvis  var 
han  hemma,  men  han  var  annu  icke  uppe.  6.  Sjuk- 
donien  ar  icke  till  dods.  7.  Dar  borta  i  det  gula  huset 
bodde  vi  i  somras. — Nej2,  ar  det  mojligt!  8.  Vi  voro 
ute  och  promenerade  i  onsdags  kvall.  9.  Den  sjuke  ar 
battre  nu  an  han  var  i  morse.  10.  Ju  mera  gossen  fick, 
dess  mera  ville  han  ha.  n.  Oni  du  talar  saktare,  sa 

1  These  belong  to  the  Second  Declension. 

2  ''  Xej  "  here  means  "really".     This  is  a  frequent  use. 


XIII  ADVERBS  115 

blir  det  batlre. — Ja,  jag  skall  forsoka1  tala  sa  sakta  som 
mojligt.  12.  I  dag  rod,  i  niorgon  dod.  13.  Hur  dags 
gick  du  hemifran2? —  Klockan  var  fern,  tror  jag3. — Och 
du  var  redan  f  rani  me  klockan  atta?  14.  Sigtuna  ar  en 
intressant  liten  stad,  som  ligger  vid  Malaren  halvvags 
mellan  Stockholm  och  Uppsala.  15.  Dar  inne  sutto  kvin- 
iiorna  och  drucko  kaffe.  16.  Gamle  Bjorklund  dog  i 
morse  klockan  fern.  Han  hade  lidit4  lange  av  en  svar 
sjukdom.  Sttindom  blev  den  sjuke  mycket  glad.  Da 
ville  han  heist  sitta  uppe  och  beratta  sagor  for  barnen. 
Salunda  satt  han  i  gar  kvall  lange  uppe  och  talade  med 
de  sma.  Till  sist  blev  han  trott.  Det  var  da  redan  ligg- 
dags,  och  aven  barnen  gingo  darfor  till  sangs.  Men  pa 
morgonen  voro  barnen  annu  icke  uppe,  da  deras  mor 
kom  in  och  sade,  att  den  gamle  var  dod. 

B.  i.  We  went  to  the  woods  last  Tuesday5  and  picked 
flowers.  2.  It  was  already  five  o'clock.  3.  The  boys 
tried  to  walk  faster,  but  they  became  more  and  more 
tired.  4.  I  didn't  believe  my  friend  when  he  said  it,  but 
he  was  right.  5.  The  weather  was  not  at  all  beautiful 
last  summer.  It  rained  entirely  too  much.  6.  The  bird 
flew  down  from  the  tree.  7.  When  they  arrived  at  their 
destination6,  they  were  no  doubt  still  more  tired  than  we. 
8.  My  house  is  just  as  large  as  yours,  but  it  is  not  so 
beautiful.  9.  The  sooner  you  believe  that  I  am  right, 
the  better.  10.  I  shall  be  glad  to  go7  with  your  friends. 
Fortunately  I  am  not  at  all  tired  yet.  At  what  time 
are  they  coming?  u.  Your  sister  sings  better  now  than 
before.  12.  The  boys  sat  in  the  house  all  day  because8 

1  See  §  24-12,  1.  6  Arrive  at  one's  destination  komnia 

2  From  home.  fram. 

3  Note  the  inversion.  7  Translate  /  shall  be  glad  to  go  by 
-i  Had  suffered.  "jag  K&r  earna". 

5   Place  the  Swedish  for  last  Tues-  S  Because  darfor  att. 

Jay  first  in  the  sentence. 


Il6  ADVERBS  XIII 

it  rained.  13.  I  came  as  soon  as  possible.  14.  Did  you 
arrive  at  your  destination  yesterday  morning1?  15.  Old 
Johnson  was  the  very  best  friend  of  the  children. 
16.  The  chairman  spoke  louder  and  louder.  17.  They 
walked  farther  to-day  than  yesterday,  but  it  didn't  take 
so  long.  1 8.  When  it  rained,  the  boys  went  into  the 
house.  19.  The  woman  went  up  to  the  table  and  took 
the  money.  20.  It  is  raining  too  much  this  spring.  I^ast 
spring  it  didn't  rain  at  all. 

1    Yesterday  morning  i  g&r  morse. 


XIV  CONJUGATION  1 17 

LESSON  XIV. 
THE  VERB. 

180.  It  has   been  seen  (§§  80;  81)  that  Swedish  verbs 
are  divided  according  to  the  formation  of  the  past   tense 
info  weak  verbs  and  strong  verbs. 

(A)  WEAK  VERBS.   While  weak  verbs  in  forming  their 
past  tense  all  have  in  common  the  addition  of  an  ending 
containing  a  dental    consonant  (</,  f)    followed    by  e,  yet 
they    fall   naturally   into   three   groups:     (I)    those    that 
have  the  tense-characteristic  -de  preceded  by  a1;  (II)  those 
that    have    only  the    tense-characteristic  -de,  which  after 
certain  consonants  becomes  -te;  (III)  those  that  double  the 
d   of    the    tense-characteristic.     Verbs  whose    past  tense 
ends  in 

-ade  (talade)  belong  to  the  First  Weak  Conjugation, 
-de  or  -te  (byggde,  kbpte) ,  to  the  Second  Weak  Conjugation, 
-dde   (trodde),  to  the  Third  Weak  Conjugation. 

(B)  STRONG  VERBS.   These  are  characterized  by  vowel- 
change  in  the  formation  of  their  past  tense,  no  tense-sign 
being  employed.     This    group  will    be   spoken  of  as  the 
Strong  Conjugation. 

181.  PAST  PARTICIPLE  AND  SUPINE.      In    the    case   of 
weak   verbs,   the  common-gender  form  of  the  past  parti- 
ciple can  be  found  by  dropping  the  final  -e  of   the    past 
tense,  the  neuter  being  formed  by  changing  the  -d  (-dd)  of 

1  This  a  belongs  to  the  stem,  and  so  the  tense-ending  is  in  real- 
ity -de  here  just  as  in  the  Second  Weak  Conjugation.  The  steins  of  the  va- 
rious conjugations,  illustrated  by  the  verbs  mentioned  on  this  page,  are:  (I) 
tala:  (II)  &vw.  kof:  (III)  tro:  (Strong)  skriv.  Observe  that  in  the  First  and 
Third  Weak  Conjugations  the  stem  is  identical  with  the  infinitive,  while  in 
the  Second  Weak  Conjugation  and  in  the  Strong  Conjugation,  a  is  added 
to  the  stem  to  form  the  infinitive.  The  stem  is  in  all  conjugations  the  same 
as  the  singular  of  the  present  imperative. 


Ii8  CONJUGATION  XIV 

the  common-gender  form  to  -t  (-/O1.  Those  ending  in  -/ 
are  not  changed  in  the  neuter2.  The  endings  of  the  past 
participle,  then,  are:  (I)  -ad,  n.  -at  (talad,  n.  /a/a/);  (II) 
-d  or  -t,  n.  -t  (byggd,  n.  byggt;  kbpt,  n.  kbpf);  (III)  -dd,  n. 
-//  (trodd,  n.  trotf).  The  Strong  Conjugation  has  in  the 
past  participle  the  ending  -en,  n.  -^/3,  which  is  added 
directly  to  the  stem4  (skriven,  u.  skrivef). 

The  neuter  of  the  past  participle  of  all  verbs  is  used 
after  the  present  and  past  tense  of  7/a(m)5  have,  to  form 
the  present  perfect  and  the  past  perfect,  respectively;  as, 
jag  har  talat  I  have  spoken,  jag  hade  /a/a/  I  had  spoken. 
Observe  that  English  similarly  employs  the  past  partici- 
ple in  the  formation  of  these  tenses.  In  both  languages 
it  has  in  this  case  active,  and  not  passive,  meaning. 

When  so  employed  in  Swedish,  the  neuter  of  the  past 
participle  is  called  the  Supine.  In  the  Strong  Conjugation, 
i  is  substituted  for  e  in  the  neuter  of  the  past  participle 
when  used  in  this  way.  The  endings  of  the  supine  are 
accordingly  in  weak  verbs  (I)  -a/,  (II)  -/,  (III)  -//,  and 
in  the  Strong  Conjugation  -it. 

182.  OMISSION  OF  THE  AUXILIARY.  In  dependent  claus- 
es the  auxiliary  is  very  often  omitted  in  the  present  per- 
fect and  past  perfect,  the  supine  alone  being  used6  (see 
§  191,  i).  The  context  shows  whether  the  supine 
has  present  perfect  or  past  perfect  meaning.  Ex.:  Har 
ar  en  liten  bok,  som  jag  skrivit  i  sommar.  Here  is  a 
little  book  that  I  have  written  this  summer.  Jag  trodde, 
att  han  trbttnat.  I  thought  he  had  grown  tired.  Nar 

1  As  in  adjectives;  see  §  151.  2  a,  and  3. 

2  As  in  adjectives;  see  §  151 ,  4. 

3  As  in  adjectives;  see  §  151,  1. 

4  Concerning  root-vowel  of  past  participle  and  supine   see  §  2O1,  note  1. 

5  As  in  English,  this  is  used  both  as  an  auxiliary  and  as  an  independ- 
ent verb. 

6  But  never  in  conditional  clauses  with  Om  omitted;  cf.  §  140. 


XIV  FIRST  WEAK  CONJUGATION  119 

del  slutat  rcgna,  skola  vi  g&  ut  och  ga.  When  it  has 
stopped  raining,  we  shall  go  out  for  a  walk.  Striden 
rasade,  dnda  tills  solen  gatt  ned.  The  battle  raged  until 
the  sun  had  set.  Om  vi  varit  for sik' tig  are,  skulle  delta 
ej  ha  hiint.  If  we  had  been  more  careful,  this  would 
not  have  happened.  Vadfadern  pabbrjat,  fortsatte  sbnerna. 
The  sons  continued  what  their  father  had  started. 

183-  SUMMARY.      (A)  Weak  Conjugations: 

INF.  PRES.        PAST          PAST  PART.  SUP. 

I.  tala  talar         talade        talad,  n.  talat  talat 

II.  a)  bygga     bygger      byggde      byggd,  n.  byggt        byggt 

b}  kbpa       kbper        kbpte         kbpt,  n.  kbpt  kbpt 

III.  tro  tror  trodde        trodd,  n.   trott  trott 

(B)  Strong  Conjugation: 

skriva          skriver     skrev        striven,  n.  skrivet  skrivit 

Note. — To  facilitate  the  formation  of  the  various  tenses,  it  is 
desirable  to  know  in  the  case  of  all  verbs:  (i)  the  present  infini- 
tive, (2)  the  past  sing.  ind.  (and  the  past  plur.  if  its  stem-vowel 
differs  from  that  of  the  singular),  and  (3)  the  supine.  These  are 
called  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb.  Ex.:  tala,  talade,  talat; 
bygga,  byggde,  byggt;  kopa,  kopte,  kopt;  tro,  trodde,  trott;  skriva, 
skrev,  skrivit;  finna,  fann,  funno,  funnit. 

FIRST  WEAK  CONJUGATION. 

184.  The  First  Weak  Conjugation  contains  about 
five-sixths  of  all  Swedish  verbs,  though  many  of  the 
verbs  that  are  most  commonly  used  belong  to  other  con- 
jugations. To  the  First  Weak  Conjugation  belong: 

(1)  Almost  all  weak  verbs  that  before   the   -a   of   the 
infinitive  have  a  consonant    preceded   by  a  hard1    vowel; 
as,  kalla  call,  bruka  use,  fraga  ask. 

(2)  All    verbs    having    a    vowel    before    the  -a  of    the 
infinitive;  as,  roa  amuse,  fbrny'a  renew. 

1   See  §  10. 


120  FIRST  WEAK  CONJUGATION.  XIV 

(3)  Almost  all  verbs  derived  from  other  words  by 
means  of  a  suffix  containing  a  consonant;  as,  gulna  turn 
yellow,  from  gul  yellow;  vidga  widen,  from  vid  wide. 

Note.  —  Most  verbs  of  foreign  origin  belong  to  this  conjugation. 
Observe  especially  the  verbs  ending  in  -e'ra;  as,  stude'ra  study, 
telefone'ra  telephone. 

185.  Example  of  the  active  indicative  of  the  First 
Weak  Conjugation:  kalla  call. 


PRESENT 

PAST 

FUTURE1 

jag,  etc.,  kallar 

kallade 

kommer  att  kalla 

•vi  kalla 

kallade 

komma  att  kalla 

I  kallen 

kalladen 

kommen  ait  kalla 

de  kalla 

kallade 

komma    att  kalla 

PRES.  PERF.  PAST  PERF.        FUTURE  PERFECT3 

jag  har  kallat  hade  kallat        kommer  att  hava  kallat^ 

vi  hava  kallat^          hade  kallat         komma  att  hava  kallat 
I  haven  kallat  haden  kallat       kommen  att  hava  kallat 

de  hava  kallat  hade  kallat         komma  att  hava  kallat 

INFINITIVES*:  Present,  kalla;  present  perfect,  ha(va)  kallat 
SUPINE:    kallat 

Note. — i.  The  future  perfect  is  formed  by  the  auxiliary-verb 
/comma,  followed  by  the  perfect  infinitive  with  att3.  The  future 
perfect  is  rarely  used,  the  present  perfect  being  employed  instead. 
Ex.:  /  morgon  ha  vi  bott  heir  jamt  ett  dr.  By  to-morrow  we  shall 
have  lived  here  exactly  a  year.  Jag  har  strax  slutat.  I  shall  be 
through  very  shortly.  Nar  jag  har  last  boken,  skall  du  fa  den. 
When  I  have  read  the  book,  you  may  have  it. 

2.  Concerning  irregularities  in  conjugation  see  §  191,  3.  Cf.  al- 
so §§  J94,  3  and  4;  203,  3  and  4;  page  131,  foot-notes  i  and  3. 


1  Sometimes  skaU  kalla.  etc.;  see  §  136,  2. 

2  Or  the  shorter  forms  of  hara  m  ay  be  used:  viha  kallat.  jag  kommer  att  ha  kallat. 

3  Sometimes  skall  ha(va)  kall.it,  etc.;  cf.  §  136,  2. 

4  These  forms  of  the  infinitive  are  given  here  because  they  are  used  in  the 
formation    of  the   compound  tenses.     Infinitives  are  treated    more  fully  in 
Lesson  XX. 


XIV  PERSONAL  AND   REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS  121 

PERSONAL  AND  REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS. 

18G.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  la  Swedish,  as  in  English, 
the  personal  pronouns  have  a  special  form  when  used  in 
the  objective  case. 
NOM.         OBJ.  NOM.  OBJ.  NOM.         OBJ. 


jag  img 

du  dig 


cr 


han  honom 

hon  henne 


Z7  OSS 

/,  ni        eder,   er 
de  dem 


den,  del     =  Norn. 

Note.  —  Den,  del,  as  the  English  "it",  has  no  special  form  for 
the  objective  case. 

187.  REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS.  The  objective  forms  of 
the  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons, 
both  singular  and  plural,  may  also  be  used  reflexively, 
referring  back  to  the  subject.  In  that  case  they  are 
translated  "myself",  "yourself",  "ourselves",  "your- 
selves". Ex.:  Skadade  du  dig?  Did  you  hurt  yourself? 
(Cf.  Skadade  han  dig?  Did  he  hurt  you?) 

For  the  third  person,  however,  a  special  pronoun  sig 
is  employed  to  convey  the  reflexive  idea.  Of  this  there 
is  necessarily  no  nominative  form.  It  is  used  in  refer- 
ring back  to  a  subject  of  either  gender,  singular  and 
plural,  and  is  rendered  into  English  by  "himself",  "her- 
self", "itself",  "one's  self",  "themselves".  It  thus 
corresponds  to  "sich"  in  German  and  "se"  in  Latin. 
Ex.:  Gossen  {djuret,  gossarna}  skadade  sig.  The  boy 
(the  animal,  the  boys)  hurt  himself  (itself,  themselves). 

Note.  —  In  translating  from  English  into  Swedish,  the  reflexive 
"himself",  etc.,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  intensive 
pronoun  "himself",  etc.,  which  in  Swedish  is  an  entirely  different 
word,  sjalv,  n.  sjalvt,  plur.  sjalva.  Ex.:  Han  gick  sjalv.  He 
went  himself.  Plan  byggde  huset  dt  sig  sjalv.  He  built  the  house 
for  himself.  De  Jlcsla  /a/a  mycket  mera  ologiskt  an  de  sjalva  tro. 
Most  people  talk  much  more  illogically  than  they  themselves  be- 
lieve. En  furste  m&ste  forst  ochframst  kunna  behar'ska  sig  sjalv. 


122  REFLEXIVE  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS 

A  ruler  must  in  the  first  place  be  able  to  control  himself.  Smd 
barn  bruka  icke  kalla  sig  sjalva  "jag".  Little  children  are  not 
in  the  habit  of  speaking  of  themselves  as  "I". 

188.  REFLEXIVE  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS.  The  possess- 
ive pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  may  also  be 
used  reflexively,  as  in  English.  For  the  third  person,  how- 
ever, Swedish  does  not  employ  hans,  hennes,  dess,  deras 
(cf.  §  62,  note),  corresponding  to  the  English  "his", 
"her",  "its",  "their",  but  uses  for  all  these1  a  special  re- 
flexive possessive  pronoun  denoting  either  one  or  more 
than  one  possessor,  sin,  n.  sitt,  plur.,  when  denoting  pos- 
session of  more  than  one  object,2  sina.  It  thus  corresponds 
in  use  to  the  Latin  "suus",  but  not  to  the  German  "sein", 
which  is  equivalent  to  the  Eng.  "his"  and  "its",  and 
which  is  used  as  these,  both  reflexively  and  non-reflex- 
ively.  EX.:  Gossen  skadade  sin  hand  (jsina  hander).  The 
boy  hurt  his  hand(s).  De  kbpte  sin  hast  i  staden.  They 
bought  their  horse  in  town.  But  observe:  Gossen  skada- 
de kans  hand  (hander).  The  boy  hurt  his  (=some  one 
else's)  hand(s).  De  kdpte  deras  hast.  They  bought  their 
(=some  other  people's)  horse.  Observe  that  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  Eng.  "his"  is  ambiguous:  Johan  har  sin 
bok.  John  has  his  (=  his  own)  book.  Johan  har  hans  bok. 
John  has  his  (==  some  one  else's)  book. 

189.  PRONUNCIATION:  (a)3  sin,  dem  (§  6,  note  i)  ;  hononi 
(Phonology  §§  14  A  3;  22,  4);  djur  (§  16);  berg  (§  9,  i  c); 
fattigt,  byggt,  sjaht  (§  18,  and  Phonology  §  38). — Ob- 
serve the  long  quantity  of  the  vowel  in:  lekte,  past 
tense  of  leka  (§  6,  note  2);  gulna,  hardna  (Phonology 
§  14  B  2  c).  In  vitt,  n.  of  vid,  the  vowel  is  shortened 

1  Also  for  "one's",  "hers",  "theirs". 

2  Observe  that  the  sing.  sin,  n.  „•«.  may  denote  either  one  or  more  than  one 
possessor,  but  only  one  object  possessed.   The  plural  sina  may  denote  one  or 
more  than  one  possessor,  but  always  the  possession  of  more  than  oneobject. 

3  Does  not  include  •words  occurring  in  Exercises  Cand  D. 


XIV  FIRST  WEAK  CONJUGATION  123 

(§  6,  note  2). —  (b)  Stjdrnhok  (§  19,  6  b);  tjugu  (§  19,  7  a). 

190.  ACCENT:    (i)   In  the  greater  part  of  Sweden,  verbs 
in  -e'ra  have  the  acute  accent  in  all  forms  (cf.  §  66,  3). 

(2)  The  following  words  have  the  acute  accent:  (a) 
aker,  varifran  (cf.  page  125,  foot-note  ^},  forny'a,  stude'ra, 
tele/one' ra,  Fridolf. — Framfor,  when  stressed  on  the  first 
syllable  (see  page  124,  foot-note  3),  usually  has  the 
grave  accent.  The  objective  eder  usually  has  the  acute 
accent.  —  (b)  histo'ria,  behar'ska,  heller,  Henrik. 

191.  COLLOQUIALISMS:      (i)    The     omission      of      the 
auxiliary  in  the  present  perfect  and  past  perfect  belongs 
almost  exclusively  to  the  written  language. 

(2)  In  the  spoken  language  the  fut.  perf.  is  not  used. 

(3)  A  number  of  verbs  of   the   First   Weak    Conjuga- 
tion, most  of  which  have  /    or    n   before    the    -a    of   the 
infinitive,  may  in  the  spoken  language  have  the  endings 
-tc,  -t   and    -/    of    the    Second    Weak    Conjugation    (cf. 
kopte,  kopt,  kbpt)  instead  of  -ade,  -ad  and  -at,  in  the  past 
tense,  the    past    participle  and    the    supine,   respectively; 
as,  talte,  talt,  talt   instead    of    talade,  talad,    talat.     Simi- 
larly,  dda  divide,    spela   play,    mena    mean,  tjana   serve, 
lana  borrow,    visa  show,  koka  cook,  etc.     In  the  case  of 
compound    verbs    containing    these    verbs    as   final  com- 
ponents, the  shorter  form  is  still  more  common    than   in 
the  simple  verbs.     All  other    forms  of   these   verbs   than 
those  mentioned  are  regular,  following    the    First    Weak 
Conjugation;  accordingly,  always  talar. 

(4)  In  a  large  part  of  Sweden  the  past  tense  ending  in 
-ade  of  the  First  Weak  Conjugation  drops  -de  in  easy  speech; 
similarly  the  supine  drops  -/.   Ex.:  Han  svara  inte.    (Han 
svarade  icke.}   He  did  not  answer.    Ja  tala  mil  Johan  i  gar. 
(Jag  talade  med  Johan  i  gar.}   I  spoke  to  John  yesterday. 


124  FIRST  WEAK  CONJUGATION  XIV 

(5)  Instead  of  the  objective  forms  of  the  personal  pro- 
nouns in  the  singular,  easy  speech    employs   certain    un- 
stressed (enclitic)  pronouns:  'en  or   'n    instead    of  honom 
and  den1,  ' 'et  or  't  for  det1,    'na   for   henne.    The   use    of 
the  forms  '#  and  'f  is  similar  to  that  of  the  correspond- 
ing forms  of  the  postpositive    definite  article    (see  §  41). 
Ex.:     Ja  sag' en  i  gar  kvdll.     I  saw  him  (it)    last  night. 
Pick   du't?     Did  you   get  it?     Ja   tror'na   inte.     I    don't 
believe  her.     Tycker  du  om' et?     Do  you  like  it?      Vill  du 
ha'n,  sa  ttfn.     Take  him  (it)  if    you    want    him    (it). 

(6)  In    colloquial    speech,    mig,    dig    and    sig  are  pro- 
nounced as  if  spelled  mdj,  ddj,  sdj.  —  In  the  spoken   lan- 
guage (primarily  in  easy  speech),  dem  is  in  some  parts  of 
Sweden  pronounced  dom,  i.   e.,  damm. — In  easy  speech, 
the  objective  form  dem,  pronounced  dom,  is  in  some  parts 
of   Sweden   used   in   place    of    the    nominative    de.    Ex.: 
Dom  a  inte  hemma  nu.     {De  dro   icke  hemma  nu.}    They 
are  not  at  home  now. — Primarily  in  easy  speech,  fattig, 
fattigt  are  pronounced  fatti,  fattit. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  In  this  and  the  following  vocabularies  the  conjugation 
of  weak  verbs  will  be  indicated  with  Roman  numerals:  (I),  (II), 
(III).  Strong  verbs  will  be  designated  by  (STR.). 

The  following  verbs  belonging  to  the    First    Weak    Conjugation 
have  appeared  in  previous  vocabularies:  arbeta,  berat'ta,  kosta,  lova, 
plocka,  promene'ra,  regna,  somna,  svara,  tala,  trottna. 
berg  n.  (5)  mountain,  hill,       dal   (2)   valley 

rock  det2  there 

bruka    (i)    use,    be    accus-      djur  n.  (5)   animal 

tomed  to  fat  tig  poor 

back  (2)   brook  f  ram  for8  before,  in  front  of 

1  See  §  186,  note. 

2  Concerning  the  use  of  this  see  page  12G,  foot-note  4. 

3  Stressed  "fram'for"  or,  more  rarely,  "framfo'r". 


XIV 


FIRST  WEAK  CONJUGATION 


125 


fraga  (1)  question;  (i)  ask 

{a  question} 
forny'a    (i)   renew 
gulna    (i)    turn  yellow 
gang  (3)  time;  en  gangotice 
hav  n.  (5)  sea,  ocean 
hojd   (3)  height 
kalla  (i)  call,  summon 
leka  (ii,  -te)  play 
mellan  between,   among,  in 

the  midst  of 
morkbla  dark  blue 
plats  (3)  place 
roa   (i)  am  use 
se  (irregular;  pres.  -r;  past 

sag)   see,  look;  se  pa  look 

at;  se   u't1   look,    appear 
sed(an)  after,    afterwards; 

for  .  .   .  sedan2  ago 


sig  refl.,  himself,  herself,   etc. 
sin  («.  sitt)  r<?/?.,  ^/y,  iier(js)t 

its,  one's,  their  (s) 
sjalv  self,  himself,  herself,  etc. 
skada  (1)  injury;  (i)  hurt 
strimraa  (1)  streak,  band,  line 
stude'ra  (i)  study 
telefone'ra  (i)  telephone 
till  adv.,  moret  in  addition 
titmne  (2)  hour 
t  raff  a   (i)  meet 
varifran3  from     where,    from 

which 
vid  wide 
vidga  (i)   widen 
aker  (2)  field 
at  for,  to 
ang  (2)   meadow 


anka  (1)  widow 
EXERCISE  XIV. 

Note.  —  All  new  words  occurring  in  Exercises  A  and  B  will  be 
found  in  the  vocabulary  of  each  lesson.  For  unfamiliar  words 
found  in  Exercises  C  and  D  the  general  vocabulary  must  be  con- 
sulted. Words  in  brackets  [  ]  are  to  be  omitted  in  translation. 

A.  i.  Barnens  mor  ar  anka.  Hennes  man  dog  i  vint- 
ras.  2.  Gossen  bar  arbetat  hela  dagen.  Darfor  bar  bans 
far  lovat  att  giva  honom  en  ny  hatt  och  ett  par  vackra 
skor.  3.  Det  bar  regnat  balva  veckan.  Jag  tycker,  att 
det  ar  nog  nu.  4.  Karl  gav  sina  tva  vackraste  bocker 
at  system.  5.  Det  roade  dig  val  att  traffa  honom  en 

1  Predicate   adjectives,  and   some   other  -words,  are  regularly  placed  be- 
tween these  two  words;  as,  ban  ser  sjuk  ut  he  looks  sick. 

2  Adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases  denoting  time    are  placed  between  "for" 
and  "sedan";  as.  for  tv;l  ar  sedan  t:u->  y:\irs  ago:  for  lange  sedan  Ijng  ago. 

3  Stressed  "va'rifran"  or  "varifra'n". 


126  FIRST  WEAK  CONJUGATION  XIV 

gang' till1?  6.  Doktorn  sag  pa  barnet.  Han  sade,  att 
det  sag  mycket  sjukt  ut.  7.  Den  fattiga  ankans  lilla 
flicka  brukade  sjunga  mycket  vackert.  8.  Telefonerade 
du  sjalv?  9.  Nar  Erik  studerat  tyska  ett  par  ar,  kunde 
ban  tala  det  mycket  bra.  10.  Roade  ni  er  i  skogen? 
ii.  Korna  aro  ute  pa  angen.  12.  Violanta2  och  Fridolf 
tyckte  allra  bast  om  att  leka  vid  backen.  13.  Nar  de 
roat  sig  i  vattnet  ett  par  timmar,  gingo  de  hem. 
14.  Vill-du  inte  ha  en  kopp  kaffe  till3? 

B '.  There4  was  once  a  poor  widow  who  lived  in  a 
little  house  high5  up  on  a  mountain  with  her  two 
little  children,  Fridolf  and  Violanta.  The  house  was 
situated  in  the  midst  of  large  trees,  but  before  it  [there] 
was  an  open  place  from  which  they  could  look  far6  away 
across  forests,  fields  and  meadows,  heights  and  valle3"S. 
But  farthest6  away  they  saw  a  dark  blue  streak,  and 
that7  was  the  ocean. 

C.  Allaredan  finns  det4  manga  historier8  om  greve 
Henriks  dumhet,  och  han  ar  inte  mer  an  nagra  och 
tjugu9  ar  gammal.  Man  kan10  tala  om  hur  han  under- 
holl11  Anna  Stjarnhbk  pa  ett  sladparti  for  nagra  ar  sedan, 
"Du  ar  vacker,  du  Anna,"  sade  han.— "Du  pratar,  Hen- 
rik." — "Du  ar  den  vackraste  i  hela12  Varmland."  —  "Det 

1  En  gang  till  once  more. 

2  Violan'ta. 

3  En  kopp  kaffe  till  another  cut  of  coffee. 

4,  Observe:  det  ar  there  is,  there  are:  det  var  there  was,  there  -were.  Compare 
the  phrase,  det  finns  there  is,  there  are:  det  fanns  there  was,  there  mere:  see 
§  235,  note.  These  expressions  -with  the  verb  in  the  singular  may  be 
followed  by  a  noun  in  the  singular  or  plurnl. 

5  Use  the  form  in  -t  of  the  corresponding  adjective. 

6  See§  173. 

7  Det. 

8  See  page  47,  foot-note  2. 

9  Nagra  och  tjugu  ar  some  twenty  odd  years. 

10  The  use  of  "kan*'   here  is  idiomatic;  translate,  feofle  sometimes  talk. 

11  See  "underhalla"  in  the  general  vocabulary. 

12  Here,  as  frequently  when  in  the  definite  form,  to  be  translated  all. 


XIV  FIRST  WEAK  CONJUGATION  127 

ar  jag  visst  inte." — "Den  vackraste  pa  sladpartiet  ar  du 
i  alia  fall." — "Ack,  Henrik,  det  ar  jag  inte  heller. "- 
"Ja,  men  nog  ar  du  vackrast  i  denna  slailen.  Det  kan 
du  da1  inte  neka."  Nej,  det  kuncle  hon  inte.  Ty2  greve 
Henrik  ar  inte  vacker,  ban.  Han  ar  lika  ful  som  dum. 
D.  i.  They  used  to  relate  many  stories  about  her. 
2.  They  thought  that  their  own  parish  was  the  most 
beautiful  in  all  Sweden.  3.  I  have  promised  to  tell  a 
story  to  the  children.  4.  When  it  had  rained  a  whole 
week,  I  became  tired  of  it.  5.  The  children  had  been 
amusing  themselves  at  the  river  all  day.  6.  I  saw  both 
him  and  her  yesterday.  7.  He  had  built  his  house  him- 
self. 8.  He  has  promised  me  the  book  many  times.  Do 
you  think  that  he  is  going  to  keep  his  promise?  9.  The 
sea  is  dark  blue.  10.  It  looks  as  if  it  is  never  going  to 
rain  again,  n.  If  he  hasn't  gone  to  sleep,  I  want  to 
talk  to  him.  12.  I  asked  my  friend  if  he  did  not  want 
to  meet  them  once  more.  13.  If  he  has  not  answered,  I 
shall  write  another3  letter. 


1  When  unstressed,  this  word  must  be  variously  translated,  according  to 
the  context.     Here  it  means  surdy.  at  least. 

2  In  the  spoken  laguage  "fur"  is  used  in  place  of  "ty". 

3  Cf.  page  126,  foot-note   3. 


128  SECOND  WEAK  CONJUGATION  XV 

LESSON   XV. 

SECOND  AND  THIRD  WEAK  CONJUGATIONS. 

192.  SECOND  WEAK  CONJUGATION.  With  very  few  ex- 
ceptions, all  verbs  belonging  to  this  conjugation  have  a  soft 
vowel  in  the  stem.1  The  past  tense  is  formed  by  adding 
-de  to  the  stem  (see  p.  117,  foot-note),  and  the  past  parti- 
ciple (common-gender  form),  by  adding  -d.  But  after  voice- 
less2 consonants  (k,  p,  t,  s)  the  d  of  these  endings  becomes 
voiceless  by  assimilation3,  past  tense  -te,  past  part.  -/.  Com- 
pare in  Eng.:  call,  called;  fear,  feared;  but  laugh  (pron. 
laf),  laughed  (pron.  laft);  bake,  baked  (pron.  bakt).  Ac- 
cordingly, this  conjugation  is  divided  into  two  classes:4 

a)  Verbs  whose    stems  end    in   a    voiced2    consonant; 
these  have  -de,    -d;   as,    bygga  build,    byggde,    byggd  (n. 
byggf);   Jidra  hear,  horde,  hord  (n.  horf). 

b)  Verbs   whose   stems    end  in  a  voiceless2  consonant; 
these  have  -te,  -t;  as,  kopa  buy,  kopte,  kbpt  (n.  kbpf)\  leka 
play,  lekte,  lekt  (n.  lekf);  resa  travel,  reste,  rest  (n.  rest); 
vaxa  grow,  vaxte,  vaxt  (n.  vdxt}.     So  also  a  few5  verbs 
with  stems  ending  in  n;  as,  begyn'na  begin,  past  begyn'te. 

1  Most  verbs   belonging  to   this   conjugation   are   derived   from    other 
words,  many  of  which  belong  to  other  parts  of  speech.     Of  these   the  stem- 
vowel  is  regularly  modified,  unless  already  a   soft   vowel;  as,   viilja  choose, 
elect,  from  -ual  choice,  election;  krona  crown,  from  krona  crown;  viirma  make 
warm,  from  varm  warm;  vlita  make  wet,  from  vat  wet;  hysa.   to   house,   from 
hus  house;  br'dnna  burn  (trans.),  from  brann,  past   tense  of  brinna  burn    (in- 
trans.);  s'litta  set,  from  satt,  past  tense  of  sitta  sit.      By    no    means    all   Swed- 
ish verbs  with  a  soft  root-vowel  belong  to  the  Second  Weak  Conjugation. 
Especially  noteworthy  as  exceptions  are  the  verbs  of  the   Strong    Conjuga- 
tion with  i  or  y  as  the  stem-vowel  (see  §201). 

2  Concerning  the  meaning  of  this  term  see  Phonology  §  37. 

3  Concerning  assimilation  see  Phonology  §  38  and  note  (end). 

4,  Except  for  the  past  indicative  and  the  past  participle,  the  inflectional 
forms  are  alike  in  both  classes. 

5  There  are,  altogether,  five  of  these  verbs,  the  others  being  bryna  whet« 
krona  crown,  r'dna  experience,  and  synas  seem,  appear  (concerning  the  -s  of 
synas  see  §  221).  A  few  verbs  with  stems  ending  in  /  sometimes  have  -te:  as, 
tala  endure,  talde  or  talte. 


XV  SECOND  WEAK  CONJUGATION  129 

Note. — Verbs  whose  stems  end  in  dl  or  t  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant do  not  add  another  d  or  /;  as,  scinda  send,  sande,  sand  (n. 
sant);  gifta  marry,  gifte,  gift  (n.  gift}.  But  verbs  with  stems 
ending  in  d  or  t  preceded  by  a  vowel  have  the  regular  endings;  as, 
leda  lead,  ledde,  ledd  (n.  left);  mota  meet,  motte,  mott  (n.  mott}. 

193.  Examples  of  the  indicative  active  of  the  Second 
Weak  Conjugation  are:  bygga  build,  kdpa  buy. 
PRESENT  PAST  PRESENT  PAST 
jag,  etc.,  bygger       byggde                 kbper  kbpte 
m  bygga                      byggde                 hop  a                        kdpte 
I  by g gen                      byggden              kdpen                      kbpten 
de  bygga                      byggde                kdpa                        kbpte 
FUTURE:  kommer  (komma,  kommen,  komma}  att  bygga,  kdpa 
PRESENT  PERFECT:  har  (liava,  haven,  hava2}  byggt,  kbpt 
PAST  PERFECT:    hade  (hade,  haden,  hade}   byggt,  kbpt 
FUTURE  PERFECT:     kommer  (komma,  kommen,  komma'}  att 

ha(va)  byggt,  kbpt 

INFINITIVES:    bygga,  ha(va~}   byggt;  kbpa,   ha(va'}  kbpt 
SUPINE:    byggt,  kbpt 

Note.  —  Verbs  whose  stems  end  in  r  preceded  by  a  long  vowel 
have  no  ending  in  the  singular  of  the  present  indicative;  as,  hora 
hear,  pres.  sing,  hor,  not  horer;  gora  do,  gor;  lara  teach,  learn, 
lar.  So  also  three  verbs  whose  stems  end  in  /.-  tdla  endure, 
tolerate,  tdl;  mala  grind,  mal;  gala  crow,  gal.  The  plural  is 
regular,  hora,  gora,  lara,  tdla,  mala,  gala. 

194.  IRREGULAR  VERBS  OF  THE  SECOND    WEAK   CON- 
JUGATION,   (i)    A    few   verbs   add    to    the    stem   in    the 
infinitive  and  in  the  pres.  ind.  a  j  which  does  not  reap- 
pear in  the  other  tenses:3 

1  In  every  case  preceded  by  n. 

2  Also   the  shorter  forms  may  be  used. 

3  But  some  verbs  -with  j  in  the  pres.  inf.  retain  this  throughout;  as,  skonja. 
discern,    past  skonjde:    f'dlja    follow,    past    foljde:    holja   cover,    past    holjiie. 
Others  may  retain  or  lose  it;  as,  sv'dlja  swallow,   sv'dljde,    sometimes   svalde: 
tlimja  tame,  tamde.  tdmde  or  t'dmjde. 


130  SECOND   WEAK  CONJUGATION  XV 

INFINITIVE  PRESENT  PAST*         SUPINE 

skilja  separate  skiljer,  skilja  skilde         skill 

stbdja  support  stdd(J)er2,    stbdja      stbdde         stbtt 

In  most  verbs  of  this    kind   there   is   in    the   infinitive 
and  present  indicative  a  modified  vowel  that  does  not  re- 
appear in  the  other  tenses,  the  corresponding  hard  vowel 
being  used  instead.     The  most  important  of  these  are: 
gliidja  gladden  gldder1,  glad/a  gladde        glatt 

smbrja  grease,  oil       smbrjer,  smbrja          smorde        smort 
spbrja  ask,  hear          sporjer,   spbrja  sporde        sport 

sdlja  sell  sd/j'er,  sdlja  sdlde  salt 

vdlja  choose  vdljer,  vdlja  valde  valt 

vdnja  accustom  vdnjer,  vdnja  vande         rant 

(2)  Also  a  few  verbs3  without  this  j  have  in  the  infini- 
tive and  present  indicative  a  modified  vowel  that  does 
not  reappear  in  the  other  tenges: 

gbra  do,  make  gbr,  gbra  gjorde*       gjort* 

sdtta  set,  put  sdtter,  sdtta  satte  satt 

Two  verbs,  in  addition  to  changing  the  vowel,  drop  a 
consonant  in  forming  the  past  tense;  this  consonant 
reappears  in  the  past  participle  (pronounced  g}  and  in 
the  supine  (pronounced  /£). 

lagga  lay,  put          Idgger,  Idgga  lade*  lagt 

saga  say  sdger,  saga  sade*  sagt 

1  The  past  participle  of  each  verb  can  be  found  by  dropping  the  final  e  of 
the  past  tense. 

2  Observe  that  gl'dder  omits  the  j  in  the  singular;  some  verbs,    as  stSJjer, 
are  pronounced  and  written  with  or  without  j. 

3  The  auxiliaries  tSr  (see  §  258)  and  bora  (see  §  259)    are  omitted    here. 
Toras  dare,  with  past  tense  tordes.  supine  torts,  is  omitted  here  because   its 
ending  has  not  yet  been  discussed  (see  §  221). 

4  Note  the  orthographic  change  from  e  to  gj:  cf.  §§  14,  15. 

5  In  lligga.  sliga  and  hava  (see  §  19-t.  .").  th._>  past  part,  can  not  be  formed 
by  dropping  the  e  of  the  past  tense,  their  past    participles   being  lagd.    sagd. 
havd.    Some  verbs  do  not  have  the  past  participle. 


XV  SECOND  AND  THIRD  WEAK   CONJUGATIONS        131 

One  verb  with  z  in  the  inf.  and  pres.  ind.  substitutes 
a  for  this  in  the  other  forms,  also  changing  the  fol- 
lowing consonant-sound  (  to  k) : 

INFINITIVE  PRESENT  PAST  SUPINE 

bringa  bring  bringar1,  bringa        bragte  bragt 

(3)  A  few  verbs  are  irregular  only  in  the  supine;    as, 
Ici'a  live,  exist         lever,  leva  levde  levat 
he  fa  be  called           heter,  heta                  hette               hetat 

(4)  A  few  verbs  may  follow:  #)  either  the  Second  or  the 
First   Weak   Conjugation;    as,    bringa^;  see  also  §  191,  3; 
b)  either  the  Second  Weak    Conjugation    or    the  Strong 
Conjugation;  as,  gala  (see  page  139,  foot-note  i);  see  also 
§  203,  4. 

(5)  Most  of  the  auxiliaries2,  though  more  or  less  irreg- 
ular, have    forms  resembling  those  of    the  Second  Weak 
Conjugation;  as, 

kunna  can,  be  able         kan,  kunna  kztnde  kunnat* 

ha(va}*  have  har,  ha(va}  hade  haft 

vilja  want  to,  will         vill,   vi/ja  ville  velat* 

Also  veto*  know,  is  very  irregular: 

veta  veP,  veta  visste  vetat* 

THIRD  WEAK  CONJUGATION. 

195.  The  Third  Weak  Conjugation  contains  verbs 
whose  infinitives  (  =  the  stem)  end  in  a  stressed5  vowel. 

1  Observe  the  pres.  sing,  bringar.  following  the  First  Weak  Conjugation; 
also  tbe  other  forms  may  follow  this:  see  §  194-,  4. 

2  Only   the   auxiliaries    already   familiar  to  the  student  in  the  past  tense 
are  given  here.     When  the  others  occur  (Lesson  XXL),  reference  to  this  par- 
agraph will  be  made.     See  also  page  130,  foot-note  3.      Veta.  though  not  an 
auxiliary,  is  put  here  on  account  of  the  absence  of  the  r  in  the  present  singu- 
lar like  that  in  kan.  vill:  cf.  §  136,  2,  note  2. 

3  Supines  according  to  the  First  Weak  Conjugation  as  in  (3)  above. 

4,  This  verb  can  properly  be  considered  as  belonging  to  this  conjugation 
only  when  hade  is  pronounced  with  a  long  vowel;  see  §  195,  note  1. 
5   Stressed  final  vowels   are   long. 


132  THIRD  WEAK  CONJUGATION  XV 

These  verbs,  which  are  not  numerous,   are  monosyllabic, 
unless  compounded.     Examples  of    the    active    indicative 
of  this  conjugation  are:  tro  believe,  sy  sew. 
PRESENT  PAST  PRESENT       PAST 

jag,  etc.,  tror  trodde  syr  sydde 

vi  tro  trodde  sy  sydde 

I  tron  trodden  syn  syddcn 

de  tro  trodde  sy  sydde 

FUTURE:     komrner  (komma,  kommen,  komma)  atttro,-sy 
PRESENT  PERFECT:  har    (Jiava,  haven,  hava)  trott,  sytt 
PAST  PERFECT:    hade   (hade,  haden,  hade)  trott,  sytt 
FUTURE  PERFECT:     kommcr    (komma,     kommen,     komimt) 

att  ha(va~)  trott,  sytt 

INFINITIVES:    tro,   ha(va)   trott;  sy,   ha(va~)  sytt 
SUPINE:    trott,  sytt 

Note. — i.  When  the  a  of  hade  is  pronounced  short,  which  is  usu- 
ally the  case,  the  verb  ha(va)  have,  belongs  formally  to  the  Third 
rather  than  the  Second  Weak  Conjugation,  the  single  d  being  only 
an  orthographic  irregular! ty.  This  verb  is  irregular,  however,  in 
having  hava  besides  ha;  moreover,  its  supine  and  past  participle 
follow  the  Second  Weak  Conjugation1. 

2.  Not  all  verbs  whose  infinitives  end  in  a  stressed  vowel  belong 
to  the  Third  Weak  Conjugation,  the  others  being  irregular  verbs 
belonging  to  the  Strong  Conjugation;  see  the  next  lesson,  §  203,  i; 
cf.  §  203,  2. 

196.  ORTHOGRAPHY:  (i)  Observe  that  verbs  whose 
stems  end  in  mm  or  nn  drop  one  of  the  double  consonants 
when  followed  by  the  endings  -de,  -d  or  -/.•  glow  in  a, 
glbmde,  glbmd,  glbmt;  kanna,  kande,  kdnd,  kant;  begyn'na, 
begyn'te,  begyn't;  see  Phonology  §  18. 

1  There  are  no  other  irregularities  in  the  Third  Weak  Conjugation,  except 
that  tva  wash,  may  follow  the  Strong  Conjugation  in  the  past  participle 
and  supine,  in  this  case  also  changing  the  stem,  tvagen  or  tvadd,  t-'agit  or 
tvatt. 


XV          SECOND  AND  THIRD  WEAK  CONJUGATIONS         133 

(2)  Observe  that  while  the  supines  sagt,  lagt  and  bragt 
are  written  with  the  character  of  a  voiced1  consonant, 
which  is  pronounced  voiceless1,  haft,  from  hava,  is  both 
pronounced  arid  written  with  a  voiceless  consonant. 

197.  PRONUNCIATION:    (i)  skilja  (§   14);  gjorde,  gjort 
(§  J5);  hjalpa  (§  16);  sagt,  lagt,  bragte,  bragt,  hastigt  (§  18, 
and  Phonology  §  38  and  note);  tradgard  (§  16  c).  — Ob- 
serve the  changes  in  the  pronunciation  of  g  in  saga,  sagd, 
sagt.  — In  stbdja,  stbdde,  mbta,  mbtte  the  quality    as    well 
as  the  quantity  of  b  changes;  similarly  in  the  case  of  a  in 
hava,  hade  (when  short),  haft. 

(2)  The  addition  of  the  endings  -de,  -te,  -d,  -t  to  a  con- 
sonant preceded  by  a  long  vowel  does  not  cause  this 
vowel  to  be  shortened,  except2  when  the  resulting  con- 
sonant-combination is  dd  or  ///  as,  Icda,  ledde,  ledd,  lett; 
gladja,  gladde,  gladd,  glatt;  stbdja,  stbdde,  stbdd,  stbtt;  mbta, 
mbtte,  mbtt;  hcta,  hctte.  Cf.  §  6,  note  2.  On  the  con- 
trary, a  few  verbs  have  a  long  vowel  in  the  past  tense, 
past  part,  and  supine,  though  that  of  the  present  is  short: 
smbrja,  smorde,  smord,  smart;  spbrja,  sporde,  spord,  sport; 
valja,  lalde,  vald,  valt;  vanja,  vandc,  vand,  "cant.  So  also 
in  lade,  sade,  the  past  tense  of  lagga  and  saga,  and  in 
-eclat,  the  irregular  supine  of  vilja. — In  the  Third  Weak 
Conjugation  the  addition  of  endings  containing  dd  or  tt 
causes  the  stem-vowel  to  be  shortened;  as,  sy,  sydde, 
svdd,  svff;  tro,  trodde,  trodd,  trott. 

198.  ACCENT,     (a)  begyn'na,    Tyskland,  tradgard  (usu- 
ally).—  (b)  stbvel,  Ater.  — Sadel  (acute  or  grave  accent). 

199-  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  In  the  spoken  language, 
gladja  and  stbdja  are  usually  pronounced  without  the  j, 
glada,  stbda.  —  Frequently,  on  the  contrary,  verbs  with  j 

1  For  the  meaning  of  "voiced"  and    "voiceless"   see    Phonology  §  37. 

2  Note  also  the  quantity-variations  in  the  forms  of  hava.  a.ndveta. 


134        SECOND  AND  THIRD  WEAK  CONJUGATIONS 

in  the  present  have  it  also  in  the  other  forms;  as,  valjde, 
valjt;  smorjde,  smorjt. 

(2)  In  the  spoken  language,  sa    and   la    are    generally 
used  in  place  of  sade,  lade. 

(3)  Vilja    is    frequently    pronounced     villa,    and    velat 
sometimes  mllat. 

(4)  In  easy  speech,  kdpte  and  kbpt  may  be  pronounced 
with  a  short  vowel. 

(5)  The  verb  begyn'na  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence,  be- 
ing used  chiefly  in  the  elevated  style;  elsewhere  borja  (i)  is 
used.  — Bringa  belongs  primarily  to  the  written  language. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  Verbs  belonging  to  the  Second  Weak  Conjugation  and 
having  -de  in  the  past  tense  will  be  designated  by  (Ha),  those 
having  -te,  by  (lib). 

The  following  verbs  belonging  to  the  Second  Weak  Conjugation 
have  occurred  in  previous  vocabularies:  (Ha)  bygga,  saga,  kunna, 
(hava);  (II  b)  forso'ka,  kopa,  leka,  lasa,  resa,  tycka,  vaxa.  In 
addition,  note  vilja,  skola  (see  §  252).  The  following  verbs  of  the 
Third  Weak  Conjugation  have  occurred  previously:  bo,  tro,  (hava). 

begyn'na  ( 1 1  b)   begin  glad  j  a  ( 1 1  a)  please,  give  plcas- 
bringa  (nb  or  i)  bring  ure    (to),  cheer;  det  glader 

bat  (2)  boat  mig  /  ain  glad;  gladja  sig2 

bara    (STR.,    bar,  plur.  (at)   rejoice  (at,  in} 

buro) carry,  bear,  wear  glbmma    (na)  forget 

gala  (na1)  crow  gora  (na)  do,  make 

gifta  (nb)  marry;  gifta  hastigt  rapidly,  quickly 

sig2  (med)  be  married  heta  (nb)  be  called,  be  (one's) 

(to),  marry  name 

1  Or  STR.;  see  page  139,  foot-note  1. 

2  The  reflexive  pronoun  here  and  in  the  similar  cases  below  varies  accord- 
ing as  the  subject  is  first,  second  or  third  person;  as,  jag  gifter  mig,  du  gifter 
dig,  nan,  hon  gifter  sig,  vi  gifta  oss,  de  gifta  sig. 


XV          SECOND  AND  THIRD   WEAK  CONJUGATIONS         135 


hjalpa  (nb)  help 

liora  (na)  hear 

kalla  (1)  spring 

kanna    (na)    know,   feel 

leda      (na)    lead,    guide 

leva  (na)  live  (=  exist) 

lagga  (na)  lav,  put; 
lagga  sig1  lie  down,  go 
to  bed 

lara  (na)  teach,  learn1; 
lara  sig  learn 

mala   (i  ia:j)  grind 

medan  while 

raota  (lib) meet,  encounter 

ro  (in)  row 

sexton  sixteen 

skilja  (na)  separate,  dis- 
tinguish 


smorja  (na)  grease,   oil 

spinna  (STR.,  spann,  plur. 
spunno)  spin 

sporja  (na)  ask,  learn,  hear 

stodja  (na)   support,  lean 

sy  (in)  sew 

salja  (na)  sell 

sanda  (na)  send 

satta  (nb)  seat,  set,  place, 
put;  satta  sig  sit  down 

tradgard  (2)  orchard,  gar- 
den 

tvatta  (i)  wash 

tala  ( i  la)  endure,  tolerate,  bear 

ull  wool 

veta    (na,  visste)  know 

valja  (na)  choose,  elect 

vanja  (na)  accustom 


EXERCISE  XV. 

A.  i.  Den  gatnla  gumman4  salde  ull  och  kopte  sedan 
brod  at  sina  snia  barn.  2.  Jag  visste,  att  de  voro  fattiga 
och  forsokte  darfor  att  hjalpa  dem  litet5.  3.  Nar  han 
lart  engelska,  reste  han  till  Tyskland6  for  att  lara  sig 
tyska.  4.  Jag  vet  icke,  orn  jag  kan  vanja  tnig  vid  dessa 
forhallanden.  5.  Den  gamle  lararen  hor  inte,  vad  du 
sager.  Kan  du  inte  tala  litet  hogre?  6.  Vad  har  ni  gjort 
i  skolan  i  dag?  7.  Nar  bariien  lagt  sig,'  satte  modern  sig 
pa  en  stol  och  laste  i  en  bok.  8.  Jag  har  vetat  det  lange. 
9.  De  sina  ha  lekt  i  tradgarden  hela  dagen.  10.  Jag  har 
sport,  att  han  gift  sig  med  en  rik  anka.  n.  Det  lilla  bar- 


1  See  page  134,  foot-note  2. 

2  Lt-arn  =  "lara"  or  "lara  sig". 

3  Also  STR.  in  the  supine  and 
past  participle. 


4  Woman. 

5  A  littU. 

6  German) 


136        SECOND  AND  THIRD  WEAK  CONJUGATIONS          XV 

net  ledde  den  blinde,  nar  ban  var  ute  i  staden.  12.  Det 
glader  mig  att  hora,  att  du  hade  ratt.  13.  Nar  han  rott 
baten  ett  par  timmar,  trottnade  han.  14.  Vad  heter  du? 
—  Jag  heter  Lina.  15.  Han  hade  val  glomt,  att  de  valt 
honom  till  ordforande.  16.  Gossen  har  redan  tvattat  sig 
om  handerna1.  17.  Berggren  tal  icke  att  se  sina  ovan- 
ner.  18.  Det  glader  mig  att  hora,  att  du  ar  frisk  igen. 

B.  Up  on  the  mountain  where  the  house  was  situated 
[there]   was  a  spring,  which  rapidly  grew  into'2  a  brook. 
At  this  brook  the  mother  washed  the  wool  which  she  had 
spun3,  while  the  children  played  in   the   water   or    made 
small  boats  which  they  put  down  into  the  brook. 

When  the  children  became  larger,  they  began  to  help 
their  mother  with  her  work.  Fridolf  carried  water  from 
the  spring  and  worked  in  the  orchard.  Violanta  learned 
to4  sew  and  spin.  During  the  winter  she  sat  in  the  house 
and  spun,  but  when  spring5  came,  her  mother  sent  her 
with  the  wool  to  the  brook,  to6  wash  it.  She  was  now 
sixteen  years  old  and  was  a  tall  and  beautiful  girl. 

C.  Han"  hade  varit8  i  Munkeryd  pa    besok9    hos    lag- 
mannens  for  nagra  ar  sedan.     Ridande10  hade  han  kommit8 
burit  hog  hatt,  gula  byxor  och  blanka  stovlar11  och  suttit8 
styv  och    stolt  i  sadeln.     Vid  ankomsten   gick    allt    val. 
Men  da  han  skulle  rida  bort  igen,  hande  sig12,  att  en  av 
de    nedhangande    kvistarna  i  bjorkallen   slog    av    honom 
hatten13.     Han  steg  av,  satte  pa  sig  hatten  och  red  ater 
fram   under  sarnma  kvist.     Ater   blev  hatten    avslagen14. 

1  Washed  his  hands.  9  Beso'k. 

2  Till.  10  Present  participle. 

3  Supine,  "spunnit".  11  The  vowel  of  "stovel"  is  usual- 

4  "Att"  may  be  used,  but  need  not.  ly  short. 

5  Use  the  def.  form;  cf.  §  125,  end.  12  It  hatf'ncd. 

6  "For  att".  13   Knocked  o.fT  his  hat. 

7  The  Count  of  Exercise  XIV  C.  14  Past  participle;  see  the  vocabu- 

8  For  ending  of  supine  in    strong  lary. 
verbs  see  §  181;  cf.  §  201,  note  1. 


XV         SECOND  AND  THIRD  WEAK  CONJUGATIONS         137 

Det  upprepades1  fyra  ganger.  Lagmannen  gick  till  sist 
fram  till  honom  och  sade:  "Om  bror  skulle  rida2  pa 
sidan  om  kvisten  nasta  gang?"  Femte  gangen  kom  han 
lyckligen  forbi8  kvisten. 

D.  i.  They  were  visiting  friends  in  Stockholm.  2.  I 
know  who  he  is,  but  I  do  not  know  him.  3.  His 
brother  was  married  a  few  years  ago.  4.  One  of  the 
branches  struck  him  in  the  eye.  5.  He  put  on  his  hat 
and  rode  away  once  more.  6.  Do  you  want  me  to 
repeat4  what  I  said  yesterday?  7.  When  I  met  them  the 
first  time,  they  were  walking  on  this  side  of  the  street. 

8.  Did   you    go   past   an    old    house    with    a    red    roof? 

9.  When  the  peasant  had  sold  the  cow,  he  bought  three 
goats.     10.     The  good  woman  went  into  the  poor  man's 
cottage  and  put  ten  crowns  on  his  table,     u.  What  was 
your  father's  name?     12.  They  sat  in  the  cottage  spinning6 
all  winter.      13.  The    branches   of   the    birches   are    very 
pretty  in  spring.      14.   If  you  sit  down  on  the  chair  over 
there,  I  shall  tell  you6  the  story;     15.  He   said    that   he 
had  put  the  book    on   your    table.     16.  He   did   as  well 
as  lie  could.     17.  I  do  not  know  whether   he    has   lived 
a  happy  life.      18.  Have  you  learned    your    lessons    yet? 
19.   It  began  to  rain  before  I  went  to  bed.     20.  Do  you 
think  that  you  can  accustom  yourselves  to  the  conditions 
in  this  country?     21.  He  hasn't  much  to  be  happy  over. 
22.  Have  you  forgotten  what  you  did? 

1  V'.is  repeated.  5  Do  not  use  a  participle   in   Swed- 

2  Suttose  you  riJc.  ish. 

3  Forbi'.  6  For  dig.     This  phrase  is  in  Swed- 

4  Translate  as  if:  Do  you  -wish  that      ish  placed  after  the  word  for  story. 
1  shall  re  feat  .  .  . 


138 


STRONG  CONJUGATION 


XVI 


LESSON  XVI. 

STRONG  CONJUGATION.1 

200-  Learn  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  strong 
verbs,  arranged  according  to  the  vowel  of  the  past  sin- 
gular:2 

PAST 

bar,  plur.  buro 

skar,  plur.  skuro 

stal,  plur.  stulo 

svalt,  plur.  svulto 

gav,  plur.  g&vo 

bad,  plur.  bado 

var,  plur.  voro 

tog 

for 

drag 

svor,  plur.  svuro 

kom* 

sov 

lag 


INFINITIVE 
\bara  carry 
\skara  cut 
[f£7<z/a  steal 
svalta*  starve 
giva*  give 
bedja5  ask,  pray 
vara1  be 
(taga*  take 
\fara  go,  travel 
\drago?  draw,  pull 
svar(j)a  swear 
fkomma1  come 
\sova1  sleep 


ligga  lie 


SUPINE3 
burit 
skurit 
stulit 
svultit 
givit 

be  ft  (bcdit*) 
varit 
tagit 
far  it 
dragit 
svurit 
kommit 
sovit 
legat* 


1  Concerning  the  membership  of  the  Strong  Conjugation  nothing  further 
can  be  said  than  that  it  contains,  besides  the  individual  verbs  mentioned 
in  §  200,  a  number  of  verbs  having  {,  u  or  y  as  the  root-vowel.    Strong  verbs 
have  been  treated  above,  §§  81;  97;  98;  99;  180  B;  181. 

2  The    brackets    embrace   the    verbs  that  form    groups    with    identical 
vowel-change  throughout.     See  also  page  139,  foot-note  1. 

3  The  form    of  the   past   participle  will  in  almost  all  cases  be  clear  from 
the  supine.    For  a  further  discussion  of  the  past  participle  see  §§  240;  241. 

4  Intransitive.     Svalta.  may  also  be  conjugated  according   to    the   Second 
Weak  Conjugation,  in  which  case  it  is  either  transitive  or  intransitive. 

5  See  §  203,  2. 

6  This  form  is  used  in  the  meaning  "pray". 

7  Note  that  in  komma  and  sova.  there  is  no  vo wel-change.  Of  vara.  the  vowel 
of  the  past  sing.  =  that  of  the  present;  so  in  varda  (page  139,  foot-note  1). 

8  Concerning  the  plur.  kommo  see  Phonology  §  18. 

9  Note  the  irregularity;  see  §  203,  3. 


XVI  STRONG  CONJUGATION  139 

INFINITIVE  PAST  SUPINE 

ata  eat  at  atit 

\ldta  let,  sound  lat  latit 

\grata  weep  grat  gratit 

falla  fall  foil  fallit 

halla  hold  Iwll  hallit 

201.  All  other1  strong  verbs  follow  one  of  four  sys- 
tems of  vowel-change,  arranged  here  according  to  the 
vowel  of  the  present: 

(1)  All    strong  verbs    with    long  i  as    the    root- vowel, 
except  gh'a,  have  i  —  e  —  z,  as  in 

skriva  write  skrev  skrivit 

(2)  All  strong  verbs  with   short  i  as   the    root-vowel, 
except  ligga,  have  i  —  a,  plur.  u,  —  u,  as  in 

finna  find  fann,  plur.  funno         funnit 

(3)  All  strong  verbs  with    u  (long  and  short)    as    the 
root-vowel  have  u  —  b  —  21,  as  in 

bjuda  offer  bjbd  bjudit 

sjunga  sing  sjbng  sjungit 

(4)2  All  strong  verbs  with  y  (long)  as  the  root-vowel 
have  y  —  b  —  u,  as  in 
flyga                              flog  flugit 

1  This  does  not  take  into  account  a  few  verbs  that  may  be  either  weak 
or  strong  (see  §  203,  4),  and  which  -would  belong  under  §  200.  Most  such 
verbs  are  of  relatively  infrequent  occurrence  and  many  of  them  are  in  ordi- 
nary style  used  more  in  the  weak  than  in  the  strong  forms;  in  some  instan- 
ces, one  or  more  of  the  strong  forms  of  these  verbs  are  archaic.  These  verbs 
will  offer  no  difficulty  when  met  with,  especially  as  most  ofthem  follow  fiara 
ortaga.  having  as  the  root-vowelu  or<i.  Ex.:  befra'va  (Ila  or  STR.)  bury;^-«/« 
(Ila  or  STR.  )  crow;  sm'dlla.  (Ha  or  STR.)  make  a  report,  bang;  skillva  (Ha  or 
STR.)  tremble;  smulta(\\\*  or  STR.)  melt;  Kta  (lib  or  STR.,  past  lott.  luto,  supine 
lutit}  run. — Observe  also  the  irregular  verb  varda  (rart,  rordo,  past  part,  vor- 
den)  become,  which,  except  in  the  elevated  style,  is  used  only  in  the  past  sin- 
gular.— Finally,  the  irregular  verbs  of§  203,  1  are  not  here  taken  into  account. 

2   Class  -t  may  be  combined  with  3,  if  desired;  see  §  97. 


140 


STRONG   CONJUGATION 


XVI 


Note_  —  i.  The  vowel  of  the  supine  of  all  regular  strong  verbs 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  infinitive,  except  that  it  is  changed  to 
u  in  all  verbs  having  in  the  infinitive  i,  y  or  a  (except  in  gira 
and  ata}.  Among  irregular  verbs,  note  ligga,  legal;  sld.  slagit 
(§  203,  i  end);  see  also  §  203,  3. 

2.  Observe  that  in  some  of  the  systems  mentioned  in  §§  200,  201, 
there  are  three  different  vowels,  in  most  of  the  others,  two,  while 
komma  and  sova  have  one  and  the  same  vowel  throughout.1  When 
there  are  three  different  vowels:  (a)  The  vowel  of  the  past  plur. 
differs  from  that  of  the  past  sing.,  but  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  supine.  This  is  the  case  with  verbs  of  the  type  of  finna,  and  all 
verbs  having  a  as  the  root-vowel,  except  ata.  All  these  have  «  in  the 
past  plur.,  and  all  but  svarja  have  a  in  the  past  singular,  (b)  The 
vowel  of  the  past  plur.  differs  from  that  of  the  past  sing.,  but  the 
vowel  of  the  supine  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  present,  in  bedja 
and  giva.  (c)  The  vowel  of  the  past  plur.  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  past  sing.,  but  the  vowel  of  the  supine  differs  both  from  that 
of  the  past  tense  and  that  of  the  present.  This  is  the  case  with  verlrs 
of  the  type  olflyga,  and  in  ligga  ( with  weak  supine )  and  sld  (§203,  i ) . 

When  there  are  two  different  vowels,  the  vowel  of  the  past 
plur.  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  past  sing.,  and  that  of  the  supine 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  present,  except  in  the  case  of  raya. 

202.  Examples  of  the  active  indicative  of  the  Strong 
Conjugation  are:  skriva  write,  finna  find. 


PRESENT                      PAST                     PRESENT 

PAST 

jag,  etc.,  skriver       skrev                  finncr 

jann 

i)i  skriva                     skrevo                finna 

fnnno 

I  skriven                     skreven              finnen 

funnen 

de  skriva                     skrevo                finna 

fun  no 

FUTURE:    kommer  (komma,    kommen,    koin»ia 

aft    skriva, 

finna 

1   It   will   be   well  to   bear  in  mind  that  all  verbs  that  lu 

ive  ,1  i:i  the  pas 

sing.,  have  in  the  plural  a.  vowel  different  from  that  of  the 

no    others,    with   the   exception    of  srurj'a    (szv>;    jv;..  - 

vowel  is  in  all  instances  u,  except  in  the  case  of^W. 

:rxot 

•with  i,  y  or  a  (except  Ufa)  as  the  root-vowel  in  the  present,  and  (b)  the  verbs 
bedja  andj/i  (§203,  1). 


XVI  STRONG   CONJUGATION  141 

PRESENT  PERFECT:  har  (hava,  haven ,  hava)  skrivit ,  funnit 
PAST  PERFECT:  hade  (hade,  haden,  hade)  skrivit,  funnit 
FUTURE  PERFECT:  komincr  (komma,  koinmcn,  kornma)  aft 

ha(va}  skrivit,  funnit 

INFINITIVES:  skxiva,  ha(va)  skrivit;  finna,  ha(va)  funnit 
SUPINE:  skrivit,  funnit 

Note.  —  Verbs  whose  steins  end  in  r  add  no  ending  in  the 
singular  of  the  present  indicative;  these  are  bdra,  fara,  skara  and 
svara  (for  svarja).  So  also  in  the  case  of  stjala.  Cf.  §  193,  note. 

203.  IRREGULAR  VERBS  OF  THE  STRONG  CONJUGA- 
TION, (i)  Six  strong  verbs,  with  infinitives  ending  in  a 
stressed  vowel,  have  in  the  present  indicative  the  same 
endings  as  the  verbs  of  the  Third  Weak  Conjugation. 
On  account  of  their  similarity  to  this  conjugation  in  the 
present,  they  also  add  -//  in  the  supine,  but  the  past 
tense  remains  strong.  These  are: 

INFINITIVE      PRESENT  PAST  SUPINE 

stA  stand          star,  std,  stdn,  sta        stod  statt 

do  die  dor,  do,  don,  do  dog  dott 

le  smile  ler,  le,  ten,  le  log  left 

se  see  scr,  sc,  sen,  se  sag  sett 

fa  get  fur,  fa }  fan,  fa          fick,  fmgo1  fait 

ga  go  gar,  ga,gan,ga          gick,gingil        gatt 

The  verb  sla  strike,  hit,  is  similar  to  these  in  the  inf. 
and  pres.  ind.,  but  has  a  strong  supine,  slagit:  sla;  star, 
si  a,  sldti,  sla;  slog;  slagit. 

(2)  Five  of  the  verbs  included  under  §§  200,  201,  have  a 
shortened  form  in  the  inf.  in  addition  to  the  full  form: 
bedja,  be;  giva,  gc;  bliva1 ,  bli;  tag  a,  ta;  drag  a,  dra.  Ending 
in  a  stressed  vowel,  these,  too,  naturally  add  in  the  pies, 
ind.  the  same  endings  as  the  verbs  of  the  Third  Weak 

1  Observe  the  consonant-change  in  the  plural. 

2  Ct".  §j    138;  2<)1,  1. 


142  STRONG  CONJUGATION  XVI 

Conjugation.  On  account  of  their  similarity  in  the  pres. 
to  the  irregular  verbs  just  mentioned,  and  to  the  verbs 
of  the  Third  Weak  Conjugation,  these  also  have  formed 
supines  in  -it,  which,  however,  except  in  the  case  of  bett 
and  gett,  are  considered  dialectical.  See  further,  §  207,  i. 
INFINITIVE  PRESENT  PAST  SUPINE 

bed/a  (be}  bcderl(ber},  etc.  bad,  bado  bett  (bedit-) 
giva  (ge~)  giver  (ger~) ,  etc.  gav,  gavo  givit  (gett} 
bliva  (bit)  bliver(blir},e\.c.  blev  blrcit 

taga  (to)  tager  (tar) ,  etc.          tog  tagit 

draga  (drd)      drager(jdrar)y  etc.    drog  dragit 

(3)  In  a  few  verbs  the   supine    is    irregular;    as,    nysit 
or    nusit    (but    usually    nyst;   see   §    203,  4)    from    nvsa 
sneeze;  suttit  or  setat,  from  sitta  sit;  tigit  or  tegat,  from  tiga 
be  silent;  legal,  from    ligga  lie. — In  a  few   cases,    verbs 
belonging  to  other  conjugations  have  a  strong  supine;  as, 
krympt  (tr.  or  iutr.)  or  krumpit  (intr.)  from  krympa  shrink; 
tvagit  or  tvatt,   from  tva  wash  (see   p.   132,  foot-note). 

(4)  A  number  of  verbs  may  follow:  a)  either  the  Strong 
Conjugation   or    the  First  Weak  Conjugation;  as,  simma 
swim,  past  sam  or  simmade*;  tvinga   compel,    past   tvang 
or  tvingade*;    b~)  either    the  Strong  or  the   Second  Weak 
Conjugation;    as,   nysa    sneeze,  past    nos  or    nyste;    sviilta 
starve,  past  svalt  or  svalte  (see  page  138,  foot-note  4);  vdxa 
grow,    which   frequently    has    strong    forms    in    the  past 
plur.  and   supine,    vuxo,    -vuxit;    particularly    common    is 
the  past  participle  vuxen.     For  further    illustrations    see 
page  139,   foot-note  i.     In    a    few  cases,    a  difference  in 
meaning  accompanies  the  difference   in    conjugation;    as, 
sluta,  past  slot  closed,  past  slutade  stopped. 

1  Note  the  dropping  of  the  /.•  the  form  bedter  is  rare. 

2  See  page  138,  foot-note  6. 

3  Pres.  ind.  sing,  simmar  or  simmer. 
4,  Pres.  ind.  sing,  always  trtnear. 


XVI  STRONG  CONJUGATION  143 

204.   ORTHOGRAPHY:    komma,    kom,     kommo,     kcinmit; 
simma,  sain,  summo,  summit  (Phonology  §   18). 

205-  PRONUNCIATION :  (a)  skdra,  skdlva,  skynda  (§   14); 
stjala  (§  19,  6  b);   ihja'l  (compound,  §  16);  kna  (§  17). 
—  (b)  Euro'pa    (Phonology  §  35). — Observe  the  changing 
initial  consonant-sound  in  giva,  gav;  skdra,  skar;  skdlva1, 
skalv;  stjala,  stal;  ga,  gick.  —  In   most    strong    verbs   the 
quantity  of  the  vowel  is  the  same  throughout  the  entire 
system,   but  there  is  change  of  quantity    in2   ligga->    Idg; 
svdrja,   svor;  lbpav,  lopp;  fa,  fick;  ga,  gick;  varda1  (vowel 
long;  sometimes  short,  with  changed  quality),  vart  (vowel 
short,  with  changed  quality). 

206-  ACCENT.    The    following    words    have   the    acute 
accent:   (a)  forsvin'na,  begra'va,  nedfor  (see  page  145,  foot- 
note 2). — Brattom  and  kbrsbar  may  have  either  the  acute  or 
the  grave  accent. —  (b)  Strdnder(iia')  has  the  acute  accent; 
numera  may  have  either  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent. 

207-  COLLOQUIALISMS:    (i)  In  the  case  of   the   verbs 
mentioned  in  §  203,   2,  the  shorter  forms  occur  primarily 
in  the  spoken  language;  but  particularly  be,  ber,  ge,  ger 
and  bli,  blir  are  also  frequently  used  in  the  written  lan- 
guage, except  in  the   more  elevated   style.     The   supine 
belt  is  used  in  all  kinds  of  style,  while  gett  belongs   pri- 
marily to  the  spoken  language;  the  corresponding  supines 
of  bli,  ta  and  dra  are  dialectical. 

(2)  In   the  past  tense  of  a  number  of  strong  verbs  the 
final  consonant,  when  preceded  by  a  long  vowel,  may  be 
omitted    in   easy    speech:  ga(v),    va(r),    dro(g~),    slo(g~), 
la(g},  sd(g},  sto(d)3,  etc. 

(3)  In  the  greater  part  of  Southern  Sweden  the  supine 
in  -it  is  pronounced  like  the  neuter  of  the  past  part.,  -r//in 

1  See  page  139,  foot-note  1. 

2  In  addition,  in  the  wenk  supines  of  the  verbs  of  §  203,  1  and  2. 

3  In  place  of  stod  the  form  stag  is  used  in  a  l;ir,u;e  part  of  Sweden. 


144  STRONG    CONJUGATION  XVI 

the  rest  of  Sweden  it  is  usually  pronounced  as  spelled, 
though  in  Stockholm  and  a  number  of  other  places  it  loses 
the  final  -tl  in  easy  speech;  as,  vari  for  varit.  — Similarly, 
the  final  t  of  the  past  part,  is  omitted  in  some  parts  of  the 
country  (including  Stockholm);  as,  give(f);  cf.  §  157,  3. 

(4)  In  the  spoken  language,  n&gonsin  is  usually  short- 
ened to  nansin.     Cf.  nan  for  nagon  in  Lesson  XXIV. 

(5)  Of  verbs  that  may  be  either  strong  or    weak,   the 
spoken  language  in  most  cases  prefers  the  weak  forms. 

(6)  In  verbs  of   the   type   of  flyga,    easy    speech    fre- 
quently has  the  same  vowel  in  the  supine  as  in  the  infin- 
itive: flyga,  flog,  flygit. 

(7)  Tva  is  used  only  in  the  elevated  style,  tvatta  being 
the  word  otherwise  employed. 

VOCABULARY. 

Note.  —  The  following  verbs  belonging  to  the  Strong  Conjuga- 
tion have  occurred  in  previous  vocabularies:  bjuda,  bliva,  bara, 
dricka,  do,  falla,  finna,  flyga,  fa,  giva,  ga,  halla,  komma,  lida, 
ligga,  rida,  se,  sitta,  sjunga,  skriva,  spinna,  sova,  taga,  vara. 
all  («.  allt, plur.  alia)  all  boja  (na)  bend;  boja  sig* 
bakom2  behind  bend,  stoop 

bedja  (STR.)  ask*,  request,         draga  (STR.)    draw,  pull 

pray;  —  om  ask  for  fall    n.     (5)    fall,     waterfall 

blommande  blooming  •  fara  (^^  go,  journey ,  travel 

blasa  (nb)  blow  flyta  (STR.)  float,  flow 

brusa  (i)  roar,  rush  tram,  forth,   along 

brattom  in  a    hurry;    ha         forsvin'na     (STR.)    disappear 

brattom  be  in  a  hurry,         grata  (STR. )  weep 

be  busy  han  from  here,   away 

1  Cf.  §  191,  4. 

2  "Ba'koni"  or  "bakom"'. 

3  Never  used  in  the  meaning  "ask  a  question". 

4  Bend  as   translation   for  "boja"  is   transitive,  while   it    is   intransitive 
•when  it  translates  "boja  sig". 


XVI 


STRONG  CONJUGATION 


145 


ihja'l   to  death 

kna  n.   (4)  knee 

kvar1  left,  behind,  remain- 
ing 

korsbar  n.   (5)  cherry 

korsbarsblomma  (1)  cher- 
ry-blossom 

korsbarstrad  n.  (5)  cher- 
ry-tree 

le    (iRREG.  STR.)    smile 

lata  (STR.)  let,  sound; 
lata  bli  leave  off,  let 
alone,  cease 

mot    against,    towards 

nedfor2  down 

nysa  (STR.  or  1 1  b)  sneeze 

nagonsin  ever 

simma      i^'STR.)    swim 


skynda  (i)  hurry;  skynda  sig 

hurry 

skara  (STR.)  cut 
sluta     (i)   finish,    end,    stop; 

(STR.)  shut,  close 
sla   (IRREG.  STR.)  strike,  hit 
stjala  (STR.)  steal 
sta  (IRREG.  STR.)  stand;  sta 

till3  be,  do 

svalta    (STR.  or  1 1  b)  starve 
svar(j)a  (STR.)  swear 
tiga    (STR.)   be  silent 
tvinga  (i  0rSTR.)  compel 
tva  (ni)  wash 
vidare/urt/ier,  more,  on 
vild  wild 
vind  (2)  wind 


ata  (STR.)  eat 
EXERCISE  XVI. 

A.  i.  Manga  av  soldaterna  svulto  ihja'l  under4  vintern. 
2.  Oin  du  icke  liar  brattom,  sa  skall  jag  be  dig  sitta  kvar 
litet  langre.  3.  Nar  det  slutat  regna,  skola  vi  ga  ut  och 
ga.  4.  Jag  vet,  att  ban  gjort  det,  men- jag  ar  icke  ond 
pa  honoin.  5.  Da  lion  kommit  ned  till  backen,  lade  hon 
sig  pa  kna  och  tvattade  ullen.  6.  Det  sag  ut,  som  om 
hon  hade  mycket  brattom.  7.  Nar  hon  slutat,  skynda- 
de  hon  sig  nedfor  berget  for  att  traffa  brodern.  8.  Se- 
dan gingo  de  till  en  liten  tradgard,  som  deras  moder  hade 
kopt,  och  plockade  korsbar.  9.  Om  varen  hade  de  tyckt, 
att  korsbarsblommorna  voro  det  vackraste,  de  nagonsin 

1  Used  as  in:   sitta  kvar  remain  sitting,  sta  kvar  remain  standing,  etc. 

2  "Ne'clfor"  or  (infrequently)  "nedfo'r". 

3  fsedasin:  Hur  star  det  till  (tneddig)?   How  are  you?  Hmv  do  you  do? 
4,  During. 


146  STRONG  CONJUGATION  XVI 

sett,  och  nu  tyckte  de,  att  korsbaren  voro  de  biista,  de  na- 
gonsin  atit.  10.  Vi  bado  honom  lata  bli  alt  gb'ra  det. 
ii.  Hur  star  det  till  hemma?  12.  Vi  tego.  13.  Om  det 
icke  blaser  for  mycket  i  morgon,  sa  skola  vi  fara  tit  pa 
landet. 

B.  When  it  had  become  spring,  she  went  to  the  brook 
one  day  with  her  wool.     She  was  lying  on    [her]  knees, 
bending1  over  the  water  which  rushed  down  toward  the 
falls.     It  seemed  as  if  all  the  waves  were  in   a  hurry  to 
get2  down  the  mountain  and    out    toward    the    meadows 
and  fields. 

Violanta  lay  still  for  a  long  time3  looking4  at  the  water, 
and  then5  she  asked  the  brook:  "Whither  are  you  hur- 
rying away6?"  Then  the  brook  answered:  "To  the  wild 
waves  of  the  sea".  To  the  wild  waves  of  the  sea,"  and 
rushed  on. 

Behind  Violanta  [there]  stood  a  blooming  cherry-tree. 
When  the  wind  blew,  many  of  the  white  blossoms  fell 
down  into  the  brook  and  floated  away8.  "Whither  are 
you  floating  away.  Whither  are  you  floating  away,  you 
pretty,  white  flowers?"  asked  Violanta,  when  she  saw 
the  flowers  floating9  along  on  the  water.  "To  the  wild 
waves  of  the  sea.  To  the  wild  waves  of  the  sea",  an- 
swered the  cherry-blossoms  and  disappeared. 

C.  Da  talade  gumman  om,  att  det  en  gang  skulle  ha 
legat  ett  slott  norr  om  Stora  Djulo  pa  en  backe,  dar  det 

1  Bojd.  6  Han. 

2  Att  komma.  7  Use  the  genitive,  not  a.  preposi- 

3  Translate    for    a  long  time  with  tional  phrase, 
one  word.  8  Bort. 

4  Do  not  render  with  a  participle.  9   Translate  with  the  infinitive. 

5  Sa. 


V.   IRVING 


XVI  STRONG   CONJUGATION  147 

numera  inte  fanns  annat  an  l  skog,  och  framfor  det2  slot- 
tet  skulle  ha  legat  en  skon  lustgard.  Sa.  hade  det  en 
gang  hiint,  att  en,  som  kallades  herr  Karl,  och  som  pa 
den2  tiden  styrde  hela  Sormland,  hade  kommit  resande3 
till  slottet.  Och  sedan  han  hade  spisat  och  druckit, 
hade  han  gatt  ut  i  lustgarden,  statt  dar  bade  lange  och 
val4  och  sett  ut  over  Stora  Djulo  sjo  och  de  vackra 
stranderna.  Men  bast  han  stod  dar5  och  gladde  sig  at 
det,  som  han  sag,  och  tankte  for  sig  sjalv,  att  det  inte 
fanns  vackrare  land  an  Sormland,  sa  hade  han  hort 
nagon  sucka  helt  djupt  alldeles  bakom  honom. 

D.  i.  The  book  has  been  lying  on  the  table  all  the 
time.  2.  Have  you  ever  seen  the  royal  palace  in  Stock- 
holm? 3.  If  you  have  been  in  Stockholm,  you  have 
seen  the  most  beautiful  capital  in  Europe6.  4.  What  has 
happened  over  there?  5.  At  that  time  there  was  nothing 
but  woods  here.  6.  The  naughty  boys  stole  cherries 
from  the  old  man's  orchard.  7.  He  bent  the  branch  un- 
til it  broke.  8.  I  have  caught  a  cold.  I  have  been 
sneezing  all  day.  9.  How  are  you  to-day,  uncle?  10.  He 
smiled  when  I  told  him  that  I  had  wept.  n.  I  asked 
him  to  hurry.  12.  We  took  our  knives  and  cut  off  all 
the  small  branches.  13.  Formerly  the  water  flowed  much 
more  slowly  than  now.  14.  They  disappeared  among  the 
trees.  15.  When  he  had  been  standing  a  long  time  ad- 
miring the  shores  of  this  lake,  he  said  that  he  had  nev- 
er seen  anything  more  beautiful.  16.  I  sighed  when  I 
heard  that  he  had  died.  17.  The  little  boy  asked  for 
an  apple. 

1    Inte  annat  an  nothing  but.  4    Bade  lange  och  va\/0r  a  lone  time 

'2   Den.    det  that,   demonstrative  5    Bast  han  stod  dar  just  as  he  was 

pronoun;  note    that  the  following  standing  there. 

noun  is  in  the  definite  form.  6   Euro'pa. 
3   Present  participle  of  "resa". 


148  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  XVII 

LESSON  XVII. 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

208-  The  subjunctive  ends  in  -e  in  all  persons,  both 
singular  and  plural;  to  this  the  second  person  plural 
adds  the  usual  -«,  and  ends  in  -en1.  In  all  conjugations 
the  present  and  past  subjunctive  can  be  found  by  sub- 
stituting -e  for  the  plural  ending  of  the  corresponding 
tense  of  the  indicative.2  Weak  verbs  have  no  special 
form  for  the  past  subjunctive,  but  employ  the  past  in- 
dicative, which  in  such  verbs  already  has  the  ^-ending 
characteristic  of  the  subjunctive. 

The  auxiliaries  md3,  matte*  may,  and  skidle^  should, 
would,  with  the  infinitive  may  be  substituted  for  the 
subjunctive  in  most  of  its  uses. 

The  subjunctive  ending  in  e  may  conveniently  be 
called  the  e-subjunctive ,  and  that  formed  by  means  of 
auxiliaries  the  aitxiliary-subjunctive. 

Note.  —  i.  Verbs  whose  infinitives  end  in  a  stressed  vowel 
(Third  Weak  Conjugation  and  the  irregular  strong  verbs  of  §  203, 
I  5)  do  not  form  the  present  ^-subjunctive,  but  have  only  the  auxil- 
iary-subjunctive. 

2.  Strong  verbs  which  in  the  plural  of  the  past  indicative  have 
a  root-vowel  differing  from  that  of  the  past  singular,  employ  the 
root-vowel  of  the  indicative  plural  both  in  the  singular  and  plural 
of  the  ^-subjunctive. 

1  As  has   been   seen,  -en  (or -«)  is  the  ending  for  the  second  person  plural 
in  all  moods  and  tenses. 

2  Except  in  the  case  of  vara,   pres.  ind.   plural  ara.   subj.  vare.     The  past 
tense  is  regular,  subj.  vare. 

3  Observe  that  ma.  like  the  other  auxiliaries  (cf.  §  136,  2,  note  2)  does  not 
add -r  in  the  singular.     Matte  is  its  past  tense  in  form,  but  is  not  used   to 
express  past  time. 

4  The  form  skulleis  the  past  tense  of  skall:  cf.  §  194,  5,  and  §  252. 

5  Cf.  also  the  shorter  forms  in  §  203,  2. 


XVII  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  149 

209.  The  forms  of  the  present1  ^-subjunctive  illustrated 
by  verbs  of  the  various  conjugations  are: 


I. 

II. 

III. 

STRONG        IRREG. 

jag,  etc.,  alske 

leve 

o_ 

blive 

give 

o_ 

vi  alske 

leve 

0* 

blive 

give 

i* 

I  dlsken 

leven 

•-t 

3 

bliven 

given 

de  alske 

leve 

n 

D* 

blive 

give 

o> 
pu 

In  place  of  the  present  ^-subjunctive,  the  present  aux- 
iliary-subjunctive, consisting  of  ma  or  matte  with  the 
present  infinitive,  may  be  used: 

jag,  etc.,  ma  (or  matte)  dlska,  leva,  fro,    bliva,  giva,    sta 
vi  ma  (matte}  dlska,  leva,  fro,  bliva,  giva,  sta 
I  man  (matten*)  dlska,  leva,  tro,  bliva,  giva,  sta 
de  ma  (matte)  dlska,  leva,  tro,  bliva,  giva,  sta 

210-  The  forms  of  the  past2  <?-subjunctive  are: 
I.  II.  III.  STRONG  IRREG.  STR. 

bleve        gave  stode 

,.      .         bleve        gave  stode 

Same  as  the  past  indicative.    .. 

bleven      gaven          stoden 

bleve        gave  stode 

In  place  of  the  past  ^-subjunctive,  the  past  auxiliary- 
subjunctive,  consisting  of  skulle*  with  the  present  in- 
finitive, may  be  used: 

jag,  etc.,  skulle  dlska,  leva,  tro,  bliva,  giva,  sta 
vi  skulle  dlska,  leva,  tro,  bliva,  giva,  sta 
I  skullen  dlska,  leva,  tro,  bliva,  giva,  sta 
de  skulle  dlska,  leva,  tro,  bliva,  giva,  sta 

1  The  present  subjunctive  may  also  be  called  the   optative,  because  It  al- 
most always  expresses  wish.   Outside  of  the  third  person  singular,  theforms 
given  are  very  rarely  used. 

2  Those  who  call  the  present  subjunctive   "optative",  call  the  past   sub- 
junctive simply  "subjunctive". 

3  Skulle  —  both  "should"  and  "would";  cf.    $   137,  beginning. 


150  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  XVII 

211.  There  is  no  present  perfect  ^-subjunctive,  the 
present  perfect  auxiliary-subjunctive,  consisting  of  in&  or 
mtffc  with  the  perfect  infinitive,  being  used  instead;  as, 
jag  nid  (or  m&tte)  ha(vd)  alskat,  etc. 

212-  For  the  past  perfect  ^-subjunctive  the  forms  of 
the  past  perfect  indicative  are  used1;  in  place  of  this,  the 
past  perfect  auxiliary-subjunctive,  consisting  of  skullc 
followed  by  the  perfect  infinitive,  is  very  often  employed; 
as.  JaS  h**^  akkat  or  jag  skulle  ha(va~)  alskat,  etc. 

USE  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

213.  The  use  of  the  <?-subjunctive  is  rather  limited, 
the  auxiliary-subjunctive2  being  employed  in  many  cases 
where  German  and  Latin  would  have  the  subjunctive. 
Even  in  most  constructions  where  Swedish  does  employ 
the  ^-subjunctive,  the  auxiliary-subjunctive  is  used  inter- 
changeably with  it.  In  the  present  tense  the  auxiliary- 
subjunctive  is  more  common  than  the  ^-subjunctive;  in 
the  past  tense  it  occurs  frequently  in  the  case  of  some 
constructions,  while  others  require  the  ^-subjunctive  and 
do  not  allow  the  substitution. 

The  present  and  past  subjunctive  do  not,  except  very 
rarely,  denote  different  kinds  of  time  as  do  the  cor- 
responding tenses  of  the  indicative.  In  the  subjunctive, 
both  these  tenses  refer  to  present  or  future  time.  In 
general,  the  present  subjunctive  is  used  of  an  action 
that  may  take  place,  the  past  subjunctive  of  one  that 
cannot  or  is  not  likely  to  take  place.  The  past  perfect 
subjunctive  refers  to  past  time,  and  is  used  of  an  act 
that  did  not  take  place. 

1  In  subordinate  clauses  the  supine  alone  may  be  used;  cf.  $  182. 

2  Other  auxiliaries  besides  ma.   matte  and  fkttUe  are  used  to  express    ideas 
that  in  German  and   Latin  require  the  subjunctive.— The   auxiliaries    ma 
matte,  skulle  are  used  extensively  also  in  constructions  where   Swedish   could 
not  have  the  ^-subjunctive.     See  Lesson  XXI. 


XVTI  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  151 

214.  WISH,     (i)    A   wish  that  can   be  realized   is   ex- 
pressed by  the  present  ^-subjunctive,  or  by  the  auxiliaries 
md,  mdtte   with   the   present    infinitive,   mdtte   imparting 
more   vividness   to    the  wish   and   usually  implying  fear 
that   it    may   not    be    realized.     As    there   is   no   present 
perfect  ^-subjunctive,  a  wish  that  may  have  been  realized 
is   expressed   by    these  auxiliaries   with   the  perfect   in- 
finitive.    Ex. :  Lange  leve  konungen!     Long  live  the  king. 
Md  det  g&  honom    vdlf     May    he   prosper.     Mdtte   del  bli 
battre  snartf     I  hope  things  will  get  better   soon.     M&tte 
jag   hinna  fram   i  tid!     I    hope    I'll    get    there  in  time. 
Matte  ingen  olycka  ha  hant  honom!     I  hope  no  misfortune 
has  befallen  him. 

(2)  A  wish  that  cannot  be  realized,  or  is  not  likely 
to  be  realized1,  is  expressed  by  the  past  ^-subjunctive  when 
the  reference  is  to  present  time,  and  by  the  past  perfect 
^-subjunctive  when  the  reference  is  to  past  time.  One  of 
the  expressions  o  att,  ack  om  would  that,  is  very  often 
used  to  introduce  such  wishes.  Ex. :  Ack,  omjag  vore  ung 
igen'f  O  that  I  were  young  again.  O,  att  jag  aldrig  sett 
honom!  O  that  I  had  never  seen  him.  Ack,  omjag  bara 
hade  vetat  det!  Or,  Hade  jag  bara  vetat  det!  If  I  had 
only  known  it.  Om  han  dndd  ginge  snartf  I  do  hope 
he  will  go  soon.  Finge  jag  bara  fern  minu'ter  p&  mig! 
I  wish  I  could  have  just  five  minutes  more  time. 

215.  UNREAL  CONDITIONS.    In  unreal  conditional  sen- 
tences (conditions  contrary  to  fact),    in   which    the   con- 
clusion depends  upon  a  condition  that  cannot  be  fulfilled, 
or  is  not  likely  to  be  fulfilled,  the  verb,  both  that  of  the 
subordinate  clause  (the  condition)  and  that  of  the  principal 
clause  (the  conclusion),  is  put  in  the -past  <?-subjunctive 

1  These  -wishes  have  the  word-order  of  subordinate  clauses  (see  Jf  14O. 
«nd;  1O1;  1-H,.  See  \  14O.  beginning.  When  the  past  perfect  is  used,  the 
auxiliary  kade  may  be  omitted  (cf.  page  15O,  foot-note  1). 


152  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  XVH 

if  the  reference  is  to  present  time,  and  in  the  past  per- 
fect <?-subjunctive  if  the  reference  is  to  past  time.  In  the 
principal  clause1  the  auxiliary  skulle  with  the  infinitive 
is  very  often  used  in  place  of  the  ^-subjunctive.2  Ex.:  Oni 
du  gave  mig  boken,  sd  bleve  jag  glad.  If  you  gave  me 
the  book,  I  should  be  glad.  Vore  jag  icke  trott,  sd  ginge 
jag  pa  tea' tern.  If  I  were  not  tired,  I  should  go  to  the 
theater.  Om  jag  hade  pengar,  sd  skulle  jag  resa.  I  should 
go  if  I  had  the  money.  Om  du  hade  kommit  hit  i  gar, 
hade  du  traffat  en  gammal  bekan't.  If  you  had  come  here 
yesterday,  you  would  have  met  an  old  acquaintance. 
Jag  skulle  ha  kbpt  Auset,  om  dct  icke  varii  sd  gammalt.  I 
should  have  bought  the  house  if  it  had  not  been  so  old. 
The  condition  may  be  expressed  by  an  adverbial  phrase, 
or  it  may  be  omitted.  Ex.:  Med din  hjdlp  vore  det  mojligt. 
With  your  assistance  it  would  be  possible;  / sd  fall  fore 
jag  strax.  In  that  case  I  should  leave  'at  once.  Ett 
dussin  av  dessa  skulle  kosta  mig  fern  kronor.  A  dozen  of 
these  would  cost  me  five  crowns. 

Closely  related  to  these  are  hypothetical  comparisons 
introduced  by  som  (om),  sasom  (0;«)>  lik(a)som  (om')  as 
if,  just  as  if,  which  also  are  followed  by  the  past  or 
past  perfect  ^-subjunctive.  If  om  is  omitted,  the  subject 
and  verb  of  the  subordinate  clause  are  inverted  (cf.  §  140). 
Ex.:  Du  kommer,  som  om  du  vore  kallad.  You  are  coming 
as  though  called.  Han  behan'dlar  mig,  som  om  han  vore 
min  husbonde.  He  treats  me  as  if  he  were  my  master. 
Rocken  var  sd  vat,  som  om  den  hade  legat  i  vatten.  The 
coat  was  as  wet  as  if  it  had  been  lying  in  water.  Han 
bar  sig  at,  som  om  han  hade  varit  galen.  He  acted  as  if 
he  had  been  crazy. 

1  But  not  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

2  Observe  that  English  regularly  employs  "should"  and  "would"  in  the 
principal  clause. 


XVII  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  153 

216.   SUMMARY: 

^-SUBJUNCTIVE  AUX.-SUBJ. 

Present1        Realizable  wish  md,  matte 

I  Unrealizable  wish 
Unreal  condition,  a)  princ.  cl. '   skulle 
b)  subord.  cl.  - 
Hypothetical  comparison 

217-  ORTHOGRAPHY:    ensam,    ensamma;    annan,    andra 
(Phonology  §  18). 

218.  PRONUNCIATION:    (a)  vdrld'  (§  16  a). — Observe 
the  long  quantity  of  the    vowel    in    mogna,    scgla    (Pho- 
nology §   14  B  2  c);  nagra  (cf.  Phonology  §  14  B  2  b).— 
In  indite  the  vowel  is  shortened. — In  liksom  the  vowel  is 
sometimes   long,    but    frequently    short.  —  (b)    dagakarl 
(§  1 6  a);  skogsbacke  (§  18). 

219.  ACCENT,  (a)  Funde'ra  has  the  acute  accent. — Ocksa, 
tea'ter  and  tillsam' mans  have  either  the  acute  or  the  grave 
accent. — Liksom   may    have   the    grave    or    (less    often) 
the  acute  accent. — (b)  Behan'dla  has  the  acute  accent. 

220.  COLLOQUIALISMS:     (i)  111  the  spoken  language  the 
use  of  the  ^-subjunctive  is  very  limited,  while  in  easy  speech 
it  is  rarely  used.     In  cases  where  the   written   language 
employs    only    the    ^-subjunctive,    the    spoken   language 
generally    employs    the    indicative.     When    the    written 
language  may  employ  either  the  <?-subjunctive  or  the  aux- 
iliary-subjunctive,    the     spoken     language     prefers     the( 
latter,    or,    in    some    cases,    uses    the    indicative.      Ex.: 
Om  jag  fick,  sa  for  jag    med    samma.     If    I    could,     I 
should  go  this  minute.      Om  jag  var  kung,    sd   skulle  du 
bli  drottning.  If  I  were  a  king,  you  should   be  a  queen. 
Ack,  om  jag  fick  ga  utf     I  do  wish  I  could  go  out.    Du 
kommer,  som   om    du    -var   kallad.     You    are    coming    as 

1   Concerning  the  present  perfect  see  §  211. 


154 


THE  SUBJUNCTIVE 


XVII 


though  called.  Jag  sade  till  honom,  att  om  han  mile 
komma  med  taget,  sa  fick  han  skynda  sig.  I  told  him  he 
would  have  to  hurry  if  he  wanted  to  catch  the  train. 

(2)  In  place  of  the  n.  intet,  the  spoken  language  em- 
ploys the  form  inget. 

(3)  The    words  varje  and  sasom  belong  primarily     to 
the  written  language. 

(4)  For  nagon  and  annan,  easy  speech   may    use    the 
shorter  forms  nan  and  ann. 

(5)  Concerning    bara    see  §  86,   i.     Concerning    bbrja 
see  §  199,  5. 

VOCABULARY. 


ack  oh,  o,  alas 

annan  (n.  annat, />/#/*.  and 

def,  andra)  other 
bara  only,  just 
bar  n.   (5)  berry 
borja  (i)  begin 
ensam  alone 
funde'ra  (i)  think,  ponder; 

—  pa  meditate  about 
galen  mad,  crazy 
genast  at  once 
Gud  God 
hjalp  help 

handa(na)  happen,  befall 
ingen  (tt.  intet, //«r.  inga) 

no,  no  one,  none 
lik(a)som  as,  just  as 
liv  n.  (5)  life 
lycklig  happy 


mogen  ripe 

mogna    (i)    ripen,  grow  ripe 

nagon    (n.  nagot,   plur.  nag- 

ra)     some,    any,    some    one, 

any  one 
o  oh,  o 

ocksa  also,  too 
olycka   (1)  misfortune 
resa  (nb)  raise;  resasigm^, 

raise  one's  self,  get  up 
ropa  (i)  call  out,  shout,   cry, 

call 

segla  (i)  sail 
skratta  (i)  laugh 
slatt  (3)  plain 
stalle  n.   (4)  place 
sucka  (i)  sigh 
sasom  as,  like 
tea'ter  (2)  theater 


XVII  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  155 

tillsara'mans  together  varje  every,  each 

tyst  silent,  quiet  varld  (2)  world 

underlig   strange \  curious,  alska  (i)  love 
peculiar 

EXERCISE  XVII. 

A.  i.  Ora   jag  kunde,  sa  ville  jag  nog.     2.   Ack,  om 
det  snart  bleve   var!     3.  Om   jag    vore   kung,    sa   skulle 
du   bli   drottning.     4.  Gud   give   oss    ett    gott    nytt    ar! 
5.  Otn  det  icke  blaste,  sa  skulle  vi  fara  ut  pa    sjon    och 
segla.     6.  De  sutto  dar  underligt  tysta  och  sago  ut  over 
ha  vet.     7.  Korsbaren    se   ut,    som   om   de    vore    tnogna, 
men  de  aro  icke  goda.     8.  Det  finns  ingen   i   hela   varl- 
den,  som   vet   detta.     9.  Om   det   icke   vore  vackrare  pa 
andra  stallen,  sa  skulle  jag  genast  resa  hem  igen.     10.  Var 
det  nagot1,  du  ville  saga?     n.  Hade  han  bara  gjort  som 
jag  sade,  sa  hade  det  varit  battre   bade   for   honom   och 
andra. 

B.  The  mother  and   her  children   lived  a   happy   life 
together  in  the  little  house  up  on  the  mountain.    When 
the  cherries    had    begun  to  ripen,  Fridolf   and   Violanta 
were  sitting  together  one  day   under   the  cherry-tree  by 
the   brook.     "Listen2,    sister,"    said    the    boy,    "do  you 
think    that    there   is3   any    more   beautiful    place   in  the 
world  than  this?"  —  "I  don't  know,"  answered  Violanta. 
— "But   there  are3   none  in  the  whole  world  who  are  as 
happy    as    we,"    said    Fridolf. — "Well4,    who    knows?" 
replied  Violanta.     "We  don't  know  how  others  are  situ- 
ated5."—  "But  every  day  is  happy  with  us,  and  all  days 
are  alike6  here." — "Yes,  all  days  are    alike   here,"  said 
Violanta  and  sighed. 

1  Observe  the  omission  of  the  4  Ja. 
relative;  cf.  $  281.  5  Ha  det. 

2  Hor  du.  6  Are  alike  likna  varan'dra. 

3  Det  finns. 


156  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  XVII 

Just  then1  some  ripe  cherries  fell  down  from  the  tree 
into  the  brook  and  floated  away.  "Whither  are  you 
sailing  away?  Whither  are  you  sailing  away?"  cried 
Violanta.  "To  the  wild  waves  of  the  sea.  To  the  wild 
waves  of  the  sea,"  answered  the  cherries  and  disappeared. 

Violanta  got  up  and  looked  out  over  the  broad2 
land  below  her.  The  wind  was  blowing3  over  the  plain, 
and  very  far  away  she  saw  the  dark  blue  streak.  '  'The  wild 
waves  of  the  sea.  The  wild  waves  of  the  sea,"  Vio- 
lanta said4  slowly.  "I  too  want  to  go  to  them." 

Fridolf  laughed.  "You  won't  go  away  from  mother 
and  me  and  from  our  dear  little  home  up  here5  among 
the  cherry-trees,"  he  said*.  Violanta  did  not  answer, 
but  Fridolf  saw  that  there  was6  something  that  she  was 
pondering  over.  She  began  to  be7  so  strangely  quiet  and 
preferred  to  sit8  alone  at  the  brook  and  look  out  over 
the  broad  land  at  her  feet. 

C.  Da  hade  han  vant  sig  om  och  sett  en  gamnial 
dagakarl,  som  stod  bojd  over  sin  spade.  "Ar  det  du, 
som  suckar  sa  djupt,"  hade  herr  Karl  sagt.  "Vad  har 
du  att  sucka  over?"  —  "Jag  ma  val  sucka,  som  ska9 
ga  har  octi  arbeta  i  jorden  dag  ut  och  dag  in,"  hade  da 
dagakarlen  svarat.  Men  herr  Karl  hade  ett  haftigt 
humor10,  och  han  tyckte  inte  om  att  folk  klagade.  "Har 
du  inte  annat  att  klaga  over?"  hade  han  ropat.  "Jag 
sager  dig,  att  jag  skulle  vara  nojd,  om  jag  finge  ga11  och 
grava  i  Sormlands  jord  i  all  min  tid."  —  "Matte  det  ga 
ers  na.de  sa,  som  ni  onskar,"  hade  dagakarlen  svarat. 

1  I  detsam'ma.  7  Be  bli(va). 

2  v»d-  8  Preferred  to  sit  salt  heist. 

3  The  wind  was  blowing  det  Waste.  9  See  §  146,  2. 

4  Invert  in  translating.  1O  Humo'r. 

5  Ut  here  har  uppe.  11  See  §  24-5,  note  2. 

6  There  -was  det  var. 


XVII  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  157 

Men  sedan  sade  folk,  att  herr  Karl  for  det  talets  skull 
efter  doden  inte  hade  fatt  ro  i  sin  grav,  utan  var  natt 
brukade  komma  till  Stora  Djulo  och  grava  i  sin  lust- 
gard.  Ja,  nit  fauns  det  varken  slott  eller  lustgard  mer 
dar  borta,  utan  dar  de  en  gang  skulle1  ha  legat,  var  det 
nu  bara  en  vanlig  skogsbacke.  Men  om  nagon  skulle  ga 
genom  skogen  en  mork  natt,  sa  kunde  det  handa,  att 
ban  finge  syn  pa  lustgarden. 

D.  i.I  should  go  with  you  if  it  were  not  raining. 
2.  May  he  never  return.  3.  I  shouldn't  be  eating  the 
cherries  if  they  were  not  ripe.  4.  You  have  nothing  to 
complain  about.  5.  If  I  were  not  so  old,  I  should  be 
able  to  work  more.  6.  Would  you  be  satisfied  if  he 
gave  you  a  crown?  7.  He  used  to  come  every  night. 
8.  He  had  no  peace  in  his  grave.  9.  May  you  soon 
recover.  10.  If  it  were  dark,  you  would  see  nothing, 
n.  May  no  misfortune  befall  them.  12.  If  my  parents 
permitted  me,  I  should  become  a  sailor. 

1    Were  said  to. 


158  THE  PASSIVE  XVIII 

LESSON  XVIII. 
THE  PASSIVE. 

221.  The  passive  is  formed  by  adding  -s  to  the  active 
forms.  In  the  auxiliary-tenses  (future,  present  perfect, 
past  perfect  and  future  perfect)  this  is  affixed  to  the 
supine  or  infinitive,  and  not  to  the  auxiliary.  The  final 
-r  of  the  singular  of  the  present  indicative  active  is  dropped 
before  the  -s  of  the  passive.  Examples  of  the  passive 
inflection  are: 

PRESENT:    I.  II.  III.  STRONG 

jag,  etc.,  kallas       kbpes  tros  bj tides 

m  kallas  kbpas1  tros  bjudas^ 

I  kallens  kbpens  Irons  bjudens 

de  kallas  kbpas  tros  bjudas 

PAST: 


jag,  etc.,  kallades 

kbptes 

troddes 

bjbds 

m  kallades 
I  kalladens 
de  kallades 

kbptes 
kbptens 
kbptes 

troddes 
troddens 
troddes 

bjbdos 
bjbdens 
bjbdos 

FUTURE:    kommer  att  kallas,   kbpas,  tros,  bjudas 
PRESENT  PERFECT:    har  kallats,  kbpts,  trotts,  bjudits 
PAST  PERFECT:    hade  kallats,  kbpts,  trotts,  bjudits 
FUTURE  PERFECT:  kommer  att  ha(va)  kallats,  kbpts,  trotts, 

bjudits 
INFINITIVES:    kallas,  ha(ya~)  kallats;  kbpas,  ha(va)  kbpts; 

tros,  ha(va}  trotts;  bjudas,  ha(va)  bjudits 
SUPINE:    kallats,  kbpts,  trotts,  bjudits 

1  Observe  that  the  first  and  third  persons  plural  differ  from  the  singular 
in  the  present  indicative  only  in  the  case  Of  the  Second  Weak  Conju- 
gation and  the  Strong  Conjugation. 


XVIII  THE  PASSIVE  159 

PRESENT  SUBJUNCTIVE:1 

I.  II.  III.  STRONG 

jag,  etc.,  kallcs        hopes  ^  bjudes 

vi  kallcs  hopes  §   |!  bjudes 

I  kallcns  kopens  £  ^  bjudens 

de  kalles  hopes  bjudes 

Or,  mA  {matte}  kallas,  kbpas,  tros,  bjudas. 

PAST  SUBJUNCTIVE: 

I.  II.  III.  STRONG 

bjbdes 

Same  as  the  past  indicative. 

bjodens 

bjbdes 

Or,  skulle  kallas,  kbpas,  tros,  bjudas. 

Note.  —  i.  In  the  singular  of  the  present  indicative  passive,  the 
e  of  the  ending  -es  (Second  Weak  Conjugation  and  Strong  Conju- 
gation) is  very  often  dropped,  unless  the  nature  of  the  preceding 
sound  makes  this  impossible;  as,  kop(e)s,  Fior(e}s,  giv(e)s,finn(e}s; 
but,  l&ses.  Cf.  §  225,  note  2. 

2.  The  past  participle,  though  passive  in  meaning,  does  not  have 
-s.     But  the  supine  (=  the  neuter  of  the  past  participle  in  a  special 
use,  which  is  active  in  sense)  adds  -s  in  the  passive. 

3.  Agent  is  expressed  by  av  by.     Ex.:  Han  blev  overgiven   av 
sina   vcinner.     He  was   deserted   by  his   friends.     Fordom    valdes 
konungen  av  folket.    Formerly  the  king  was  chosen  by  the  people. 

4.  When  no  agent  is  expressed,  Swedish  sometimes  uses  the  in- 
definite pronoun  man  one,  they,  people,  with  the  active  forms  of 
the  verb,  where  English  would   have  the   passive;    as,  man   sager 
or  del  siiges  it  is  said.     See  §  304.     Ex.:  Del  var  ett  fruntimmer, 
som  svimmadc.    Man  bar  ut  hcnne  i  nasta  rum.    A  woman  faint- 
ed.    She  was  carried  into  the  adjoining  room. 

222.  The  passive  idea  may  also  be  expressed  by 
means  of  an  auxiliary  combined  with  the  past  participle. 
This  can  conveniently  be  called  the  auxiliary-passive, 

1  The  f-subjunctive  is  rare  in  the  present  passive.  Cf.  page  149,  foot- 
note 1,  end. 


160  THE   PASSIVE 

and  that  formed  by  the  addition  of  -s,  the  s-passive.  The 
auxiliary  is  put  in  the  form  corresponding  to  the  tense 
wanted  for  the  passive.  The  past  participle  agrees  with 
the  subject  in  gender  and  number.1 

The  auxiliary  most  used  is  bli(ya),  which  may  be 
employed  with  all  verbs.  In  the  past  singular,  vart  (see 
§  228,  5),  from  varda1,  maybe  employed  instead  of  blev; 
the  other  forms  of  varda  are  used  only  in  the  elevated 
style,  and  have  an  archaic  coloring. 

Cursive  verbs  (see  page  81,  foot-note  2)  may  employ 
vara  as  their  auxiliary.  When  bliva  is  used  with  such 
verbs  it  often  calls  attention  to  the  beginning  of  the 
action,  while  vara  emphasizes  its  duration. 

Note.  —  i.  The  auxiliary  bliva,  when  used  in  the  present  tense, 
generally  expresses  future  time;  cf.  §  135,  end. 

2.  The  auxiliary-passive  and  the  .s-passive  are  on  the  whole 
used  interchangeably,  without  much  difference  in  the  shade  of 
meaning.  Ex.:  Laroboken  har  anvants  (har  blivit  anvand,  har 
varit  anvand)  har  snart  i  fern  dr.  The  text-book  has  been  used 
here  almost  five  years.  In  the  present  tense,  however,  the  5-forms 
are  the  more  common,  except  when  the  reference  is  to  future  time, 
in  which  case  bliva  is  usually  employed.  Ex.:  Har  hdlles  val.  (An) 
election  is  held  here.  /  morgon  blir  han  installe'rad  som  profes'scr. 
To-morrow  he  will  be  installed  into  his  professorship.  Myckct 
dterstdr,  innan  allt  blir  ordnat.  Much  remains  before  everything 
is  adjusted.  Especially  is  the  .s-passive  regularly  used  in  general 
statements,  rules  and  directions.  Ex.:  Min  klocka  drages  npp 
varje  dygn.  My  watch  is  wound  every  twenty-four  hours.  Stold 
sfraffas  med  fangelse.  Theft  is  punished  with  imprisonment.  Ob- 
serve the  frequent  use  of  this  form  also  in  recipes,  where  English 
employs  the  imperative:  Applena  skalas,  skaras  i  bitar,  och  karn- 

1  On  the  formation  and  inflection  of  the  past  participle  see  the  references 
given  in   §§  24-0;  241.     Care  should  be  taken  not  to  confuse  the  past  par- 
ticiple with  the  active  supine  (=  the  neuter  of  the  past  participle,  slightly 
modified  in  the  case  of  strong  verbs).     The  past  participle  has  three  forms, 
the  supine  only  one.     Ex.:     Han  blir  (iir)  illskad,  det  blir  alskat,  de  bliva  ahkade. 
But  han  (det)  har  alskat.  de  ha  alskat;  cf.  §  181. 

2  See  page  139,  foot-note  1. 


XVIII 


THE  PASSIVE 


161 


huscn  tagas  bort.     Peel  the  apples,  cut  them  in  pieces  and  remove  the 
cores.     Note  also:  Forva'ras  pd  kyligt  slalle.     Keep  in  a  cool  place. 

223.  The  forms  of  the  auxiliary-passive  are: 

PRESENT:  ALL  VERBS  CURSIVE  VERBS 

jag,  du,  /tan,  hon,  den  blir  bjuden,  dlskad  dr  dlskad 

det  blir  bjudet,  dlskat  ar  dlskat 

i-i  bli(z'a}   bjudna,  dlskade  dro  dlskade 

I  blii'en  bjudna,  dlskade  dren  dlskade 

de  bli(va~)   bjiidna,    dlskade  dro  dlskade 

PAST: 

jag,  etc.,  blev  (rarf)  bjuden,  dlskad  var  dlskad 

dct  blev  (yarf),  bjudct,  dlskat  var  dlskat 

z'i  blez'O  bjudna,  dlskade  voro  dlskade 

I  blci'en  bjudna,  dlskade  voren  dlskade 

de  blez'O  bjudna,  dlskade  voro  dlskade 

FUTURE:  kommer   aft   bli(ya^)  bjuden,        kommer  alt  vara 

dlskad  dlskad 

PRES.  PERF.:  har  blivit  bjuden,  dlskad  har  varit  dlskad 
PAST  PERF.:  hade  blivit  bjuden,  dlskad  hade  varit  dlskad 
and  so  on,  in  the  other  forms. 

Note.  —  The  English  expressions  consisting  of  the  verb  "be" 
and  the  past  participle  are  not  always  passives.  We  have  passives 
in  cases  like  the  following:  A  large  house  is  being  built  over 
there.  How  many  houses  are  built  annually  in  this  city?  If  the 
knife  is  broken  while  in  my  possession,  I  shall  pay  you  for  it.  The 
farm  was  sold  last  year.  Very  often,  however,  "be"  is  an  inde- 
pendent verb  followed  by  a  past  participle  used  like  any  predicate 
adjective.  Ex.:  That  house  is  built  of  brick.  My  knife  is  broken. 
The  farm  was  already  sold.  The  sheet  of  paper  that  you  gave  me 
was  torn  half-way  across.  His  life  was  insured  for  fifty  thousand 
dollars  at  the  time  of  his  death.  When  the  subject  in  such  sen- 
tences is  made  the  object,  these  expressions  correspond,  not  to 
the  present,  but  to  the  present  perfect.  In  case  of  doubt  as 
to  whether  a  construction  is  passive,  change  it  into  the  correspond- 
ing construction  with  the  subject  used  as  the  object;  if  the 


1 62  THE   PASSIVE,  DEPONENTS  XVIII 

tense  does  not  remain  the  same,  it  is  not  a  passive.  These  non- 
passive  constructions  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  act  is  com- 
pleted and  is  not  going  on,  that  a  result  which  has  been  reached  re- 
mains in  present  time.  If  the  past  tense  is  used,  the  meaning  is 
that  the  result  which  had  been  reached  remained  in  past  time.  In 
the  present  perfect  and  past  perfect,  the  meaning  is  that  the  result 
has  been  present  or  had  been  present,  often  with  the  implication 
that  it  is  no  longer  there.  Ex.:  Bordet  har  van'/  mdlat  rotf  (en 
gdng}.  The  table  was  (once)  painted  red. 

In  Swedish,  these  expressions  are  rendered  by  vara,  correspond- 
ing to  Eng.  "be",  and  the  past  participle.  In  Swedish,  and  so  in 
English,  the  terminative  verbs  (see  p.  81)  are  used  in  this  way.  Ex.: 
Brevet  ar  skrivet.  The  letter  is  written.  Han  &r  sdrad.  He  is 
wounded.  Huset  var  redan  byggt.  The  house  was  already  built. 

Observe,  then,  that  the  Eng.  "be"  combined  with  the  past 
participle  of  terminative  verbs  frequently  has  a  meaning  not  passive, 
but  that  one  and  the  same  auxiliary  is  used  in  both  cases.  In 
Swedish,  on  the  other  hand,  an  entirely  different  word,  bliva  (or, 
in  the  past  sing.,  vart)  is  used  as  the  auxiliary  of  the  passive. 
Vara,  corresponding  to  Eng.  "be"  may  be  employed  only  in  the 
case  of  cursive  verbs.1  Vara  with  the  past  participle  of  terminative 
verbs  is  not  a  passive. 

224.  SUMMARY:2     In  English, 

PASSIVE  NON-PASSIVE 

CURSIVE  "  be  "  +  past  part . 

TERMINATIVE    "be"  +  past  part.  "be"  +  past  part. 

In  Swedish, 

CURS,  -s;  bliva  (yarf) ,  vara  -f-  past  part.    

TERM.  -s;bliva  (varf)   -f-  past  part.  vara  -f-  past  part. 

225.  DEPONENTS.3     Many     verbs     have    s-forms    with 
active  meaning,    (i)  Of  some  verbs  that  have  both  active 
and   passive  forms  used  in  the  regular  way,  the  .y-forms 

1  As  the  number  of  transitive  cursive  verbs  is  rather  limited,  the  passive 
use  of  the  auxiliary  vara.  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence. 

2  For  examples  see  §§  221,  223  and  note. 

3  On  the  participles  of  deponents  see  §  238,  note   2.  and  f  240.    note  2. 
Concerning  the  imperative  of  deponents  see  §  243,  note  1. 


XVIII  DEPONENTS  163 

may  also  be  employed  in  an  active  sense,  but  generally 
with  some  distinction  of  meaning  from  that  of  the  active 
forms.  S-forms  so  used  are  called  deponent  forms.  These 
are  used  absolutely,  that  is,  without  an  object  expressed. 
Most  of  them  mean  "to  harm"  or  "to  annoy"  one  in  some 
way.  Ex.:  Han  nyps.  He's  pinching  me  (some  one). 
Den  har  hasten  bits.  This  horse  bites  (is  in  the  habit  of 
biting  people).  Det  brdnns.  It's  hot.  (You'll  burn 
yourself.  It  has  the  characteristic  of  burning  anyone 
that  touches  it.)  Johan  sldss1.  John  is  hitting  me  (some 
one).  De  sldss1  for  sitt  land.  They  are  fighting  for 
their  country.  En  soldo,' t>  som  svalter,  sldss1  d&ligt.  A 
starving  soldier  is  a  poor  fighter. 

(2)  In  the  case  of  many  verbs  there  are  no  active 
forms,  the  ,y-forms  being  the  only  ones  used,  and  these 
always  with  active  meaning.  Such  verbs  are  called  depo- 
nent verbs.  A  number  of  these  are  even  transitive,  and 
may  take  an  object.  Ex.:  andas  breathe,  hoppas  hope, 
minnas  remember,  lyckas  succeed.  Har  kan  man  andas 
frisk  hift.  Here  we  can  breathe  fresh  air. 

Note.  —  i.  A  number  of  deponent  forms  and  a  few  deponent 
verbs  are  used  (in  the  plural)  with  reciprocal2  meaning.  Ex.: 
Hastarna  bitas.  The  horses  are  biting  each  other.  Vi  hjalptes 
at.  We  helped  each  other.  De  mottes.  They  met.  Vi  traffades 
i  gdr.  We  met  yesterday.  De  klappas  och  kyssas.  They  caress 
and  kiss  each  other.  De  brottas.  They  are  wrestling.  Karl  och 
Johan  sldss1.  Carl  and  John  are  at  blows.  Some  have  reflexive2 
meaning;  as,  gladjas3  rejoice.  When  ambiguity  would  arise,  the 
use  of  the  s-forms  as  passives  is  generally  avoided  in  the  case  of 
verbs  that  employ  these  forms  more  often  with  reciprocal  or 

1  Note  the  short  vowel  and  the  double  j. 

2  These  could  be  called  reciprocal  and  reflexive  deponents,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  other  deponents.     The  reflexive  idea  may  also  be  expressed 
by  a  pronoun  (see  §  233);  similarly  the  reciprocal  idea  (see  §  264-,  note  8). 

3  This  form  is  identical  in  meaning  with  the  reflexive  expression  gliidja 
sis:  see  page  13-fc,  vocabulary,  and  §  233,  note  3. 


1 64  THE   PASSIVE  XVIII 

reflexive  than  with  passive  meaning;  as,  bliva  slagen  be  struck, 
bliva  retad  be  irritated,  bliva  skilda  dt  be  separated;  cf.  sldss  fight, 
retas  tease,  skiljas  at  part. 

2.  Deponents  usually  have  -s  in  the  singular,  and  not  -es;  cf. 
§  221,  note  i.  Verbs  of  the  Second  Weak  Conjugation  and  the 
Strong  Conjugation  of  which  the  s-forms  may  be  used  either  with 
passive  or  active  meaning,  drop  the  e  in  the  present  singular  when 
the  sense  is  active,  but  very  often  have  -es  when  the  sense  is 
passive  (cf.  §  228,  4).  See  the  examples  above,  nyps,  bits,  brdnns. 
Ex.:  Tr&den  bites  av.  The  thread  is  bitten  off.  Hunden  bits. 
The  dog  bites.  Potatisen  rives.  The  potato  is  grated.  Katten 
rivs.  The  cat  scratches. 

226.  PRONUNCIATION:  djup  (§  16);  tidigt  (§  18). 

—  Ifra'n  may  be  pronounced  with  the  a  long  or  short 
(with  different  quality). 

227-  ACCENT:  (i)  Acute:  (a)  tillba'ka.  —  (b)  fbrva'ra, 
installe'ra.  —  When  stressed  on  the  first  syllable,  fmmat 
almost  always  has  the  acute  accent;  detsam'ma  and  pota- 
tis  have  either  the  acute  or  the  grave  accent. 

(2)  The  singular  of  the  present  indicative  passive  end- 
ing in  -es  usually  has  the  grave  accent,  but  it  may  also 
have  the  acute  accent. 

228.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  On  the  whole,  the  spoken 
language  prefers  the  active  construction  to  the  passive. 
This  is  especially  the  case  when  the  agent  of  the  action  is 
expressed.  Ex.:  Raven  skbts  (blev  skj uteri)  av  jagaren.  The 
fox  was  shot  by  the  hunter.  Coll.:  Jagaren  skbt  raven. 
The  hunter  shot  the  fox.  When  the  agent  is  not  indi- 
cated, the  passive  is  more  freely  used,  though  the  indefinite 
pronoun  man  often  takes  its  place  (see  §  221,  note  4). 

(2)  When  the  passive  construction  is  used  in  the  spoken 
language,  the  auxiliary-passive  is  generally  employed, 
while  the  s-forms  with  passive  meaning  are  avoided.1 

\  Except  in  the  infinitive.  Ex.:  Rocken  behtfver  lagas.  The  coat  needs  to 
be  mended. 


XVIII  THE   PASSIVE  165 

Particularly  rare  in  the  spoken  language,  except  in  de- 
ponents, is  the  s-form  of  the  supine,  that  is,  of  the  pres- 
ent perfect  and  past  perfect  tenses.  Ex.:  Rocken  har  blivit 
lagad  (not  har  lagats)  av  skrdddaren.1  The  coat  has 
been  mended  by  the  tailor. 

(3)  When  5- forms  occur  in  the  spoken  language,  they 
usually  have  reciprocal  or  ordinary  active  meaning.  Indeed, 
the   spoken   language  uses   deponent  forms  far  more  fre- 
quently than  the  written  language,  especially  those  with 
ordinary  active  meaning. 

(4)  Verbs  having  either  -es  or  -s  in  the  singular  of  the 
pres.  ind.  passive  usually  have  -es  (though  often  -s}  in  the 
written,  and  -s  in  the  spoken  language.  Cf.  §  221,  note  i. 

(5)  In  a  large  part  of  Sweden  the  auxiliary  vart  occurs 
very  frequently  in  the  spoken  language,  while  in  others 
(e.  g.,  in  Southern  Sweden),  it  is  not  used  in  speaking. 
Though  this  auxiliary  is  primarily   colloquial,  it   is   em- 
ployed also  in  the  written  language. 

(6)  In  the  present  singular  of  deponents  ending   in  -s 
(for  -es),  a  long  root-vowel  is  shortened;   as,    nyps,    bits; 
cf.  slass.     In  easy   speech,    a    long  vowel    is    sometimes 
shortened  also  in  the  passive  ending  in  -s;  as,  hbrs,  kbps. 

(7)  Middag  is   in    the   spoken    language   usually   pro- 
nounced without  the  g.  —  On  tidig,  tidigtci.  §  146,   7.  — 
In  easy  speech,  tillba'ka  may  be  pronounced  teba'ka. 

VOCABULARY. 

alltjam't-  always,  constantly,     bred  broad,  wide 

continually  bredd  (3)  breadth,  wideness 

andas  (i)  breathe  bredvi'd  beside 

bita  (STR.)   bite;  bitas  bite    brottas    (i)    wrestle,    struggle 

1  Or  still  better:  Skrdddaren  har  laeat  rocken.     The  tailor   has  mended    the 
coat,      Cf.  §  228,  1. 

2  Or  al'ltjamt. 


i66 


THE  PASSIVE 


XVIII 


na  (in)  reach,  arrive  at 

sak  (3)  thing>  matter 

skaka  (i)  shake 

smaningom  by  degrees,  gradu- 
ally 

springa  (STR.)  run 

stiga  (STR.)  walk,  step;  stiga 
upp  get  up 

susa  (i)  murmur,  whisper, 
sough 

soka  (nb)  seek,  look  for 

tidig  early 

tillba'ka  back 

tills  until 

ty  for 

tanka  (nb)  think;  -  pa 
think  of 

ur  out  of,  from;  ut  ur  out  of 

vakna  (i)  awake 

viska  (i)    whisper 

vanta  (i)   wait,  await,  expect 


branna    (na)    burn    (/r.) 
djup  deep;  n.  (5)  depth 
folja  (uz)  follow;  foljas  at 

accompany  each   other,  go 

together 

hoppas   (i)  hope 
klappa  (i)  knock,  rap,  clap, 

caress;    -s,    recipr.     dep., 

caress  each  other 
kyssa  (lib)  kiss;  -s,   recipr. 

dep.,   kiss  each  other 
locka  (i)  entice,  tempt 
lyckas  (i)  succeed;  be   suc- 
cessful 

langsam  slow 
middag  (2)  mid-day,  noon, 

dinner 

rainnas  (na)  remember 
mork  dark 
narra  (i)  fool,  deceive;   -s, 

dep.,  fib 
nypa  (STR.)  pinch;  -s,  dep., 

Pinch 

EXERCISE  XVIII. 

A.  i.  Du  brukar  aldrig  ga  sa  bar  tidigt2,  om  jag 
minns  ratt3.  2.  Vem  blev  vald  till  ordforande?  3.  Kors- 
barstraden  skakades  av  vinden.  4.  Nar  lian  tyckte,  att 
han  vantat  lange  nog,  gick  han  hem.  5.  Rom4  blev  icke 
byggt  pa  en  dag.  6.  Ma  han  lyckas  i  allt5.  7.  Han 
sages  vara6  sjuk.  8.  Minns  du,  vem  det  var,  som  du  tala- 

Pron.,  §  9,  3  a. 


overal'lt1  everywhere 


1  Or  stressed  on  the  first  syllable. 

2  As  early  as  this. 

3  Correctly,  rightly. 


4  Ro 

5  Everything. 

6  Observe  the  omission  of  "att" 


XVIII  THE  PASSIVE  167 

de  med?  9.  Jag  blev  narrad.  10.  Om  du  vantar  tills  jag 
kommer,  sa  skola  vi  hjalpas  at.  u.  Fienden  var  nu 
slagen.  12.  Jag  hoppas,  att  du  gbr  sa  gott1  du  kan. 
13.  Huset  saldes  i  gar.  14.  Gossarna  slass.  15.  Mid- 
dagen  var  redan  aten.  16.  Grenarna  bojdes  av  vinden. 
17.  Kunde  vi  icke  traffas  pa  nagot  stalle  i  morgon  for 
att  talas  vid  om2  de  bar  sakerna?  18.  Har  ban  lyckats 
finna  sin  bok  ?  19.  Foljdes  ni  at  till  Stockholm? 
20.  Varfor  blev  han  satt  i  fangelse?  21.  Vi  traffades  pa 
teatern  i  gar  kvall.  22.  Vad  tanker  du  pa? 

B.  One  morning  when  Fridolf  and  his  mother  awoke, 
Violanta  was  gone3.  They  looked  for  her  everywhere, 
they  waited  from  morning  till4  noon  and  from  noon  till 
evening,  but  she  did  not  come. 

Then  the  mother  went  to  the  brook  and  asked  it:  "Can 
you  tell  me5  who6  has  lured  my  little  girl  away?" — 
"The  wild  waves  of  the  sea.  The  wild  waves  of  the 
sea,"  sang  the  brook  and  hurried  on.  Then  she  looked 
up  into  the  cherry-tree  and  asked:  "Will  she  never  come" 
back?  Will  my  child  never  come7  back?"  Then  the 
cherry-tree  shook  its  crown  and  whispered:  "The  wild 
waves  of  the  sea.  The  wild  waves  of  the  sea." 

But  then  the  mother  and  Fridolf  wept,  for  they  felt8 
that  they  would9  never  again10  see  Violanta. 

Early  one  autumn  morning11  Violanta  had  awakened. 
She  got  up  and  went  out  of  the  house  quietly,  and  put 
her  shoes  on12  outside.  Then  she  began  to  run.  She 
followed  the  brook  until  she  reached  the  valley.  There 

1  See  §  175,  end.  7  Use  the  present  tense. 

2  To  talk  over.  8   Kande  med  sig. 

3  Borta.  9   Skulle. 

4  Till.  10   Mera. 

5  Tell  me  saga  mig.  11   Autumn  morninf  hostmorgon. 

6  Vetn  som.  12  Put  on  tog  pa  sig. 


168  THE  PASSIVE  XVIII 

the  brook  flowed  more  slowly.  Gradually  it  grew  in 
depth  and  width  until  it  flowed  like  a  broad  river  through1 
the  silent,  dark  forest,  where  the  high  trees  soughed 
above  it.  Violanta  ran  beside  it  constantly.  I  shall  fol- 
low2 it,  she  thought3.  I  shall  follow2  it  wherever4  it  goes. 
Then  I  shall  no  doubt  reach  them  at  last5, .  the  wild 
waves  of  the  sea. 

C.  "Jo,  det  ska6  jag  saga  dig,"  sade  gumnian,  "att  min 
egen  far  en    gang   sag    den.     Han  kom  gaende7  genom 
skogen    en    sommarnatt,  och    plotsligen  sag   han  bredvid 
sig  en  hog  tradgardsmur,  och  ovanfor  den  skymtade  han 
de   raraste  trad8,    som    var9  sa  tyngda    av   blommor    och 
frukter,  att  grenarna  hangde  langt  ut  over  muren.     Far 
gick  helt  sakta  framat  och  undrade  var  tradgarden  hade 
kommit   if  ran10.     Da  oppnades   hastigt  en  port  i  muren, 
och  en  tradgardsmastare  kom  ut  och  fragade  om  far  inte 
ville  se   hans   lustgard.     Karlen   hade  spade  i  hand  och 
bar  ett  stort  forklade11  som  andra  tradgardsmastare,  och 
far  skulle  just  folja  honom,  nar    han   kom  att    kasta  en 
blick  pa  hans  ansikte.     Med  detsamma12  kande  far  igen 
den   spetsiga   paunluggen   och   pipskagget.     Det  var  all- 
deles  herr  Karl,  sadan13  far  hade  sett  honom  avbildad  pa 
tavlor  pa  alia  herrgardar,  dar  far  hade14     . 

D.  i.  Your  friend  seems  to  be  satisfied  with   his    new 
work.     2.  A   large   hole    had    been    made   in    the   glass. 
3.  When    he  returned,    the  gate  had  been  opened  by  an 
old  man.     4.  The  chair  has  been  painted  at  last.  5.  Boys 

1  Genom.  9  See  §  53,  1. 

2  Use  the  present  tense.  10   Ifra'n. 

3  Order?  11  In  the  spoken  language  shortened 
*   Vart.  to  fdrklii  (vowels  short). 

5  Till  sist.  12   Med  det  sa  m' ma  all  at  once. 

6  See  §  146,  2.  13   Sadan  such  as. 

7  Present  participle.  14   The  speaker  is  here  interrupted. 

8  See  §167. 


XVIII  THE  PASSIVE  169 

that  fight  are  naughty.  6.  English  is  spoken  in  America. 
7.  Do  you  know  when  these  flowers  were  picked?  8.  He 
will  be  hurt  if  he  does  not  look  out.  9.  I  hope  that  he 
will  do  it  as  well  as  he  can.  10.  They  didn't  remember 
who  he  was.  n.  Does  your  neighbor's  dog  bite?  12.  We 
shall  meet  again  to-morrow,  I  hope1.  13.  He  was  struck 
by  a  bullet  in  the  last  war.  14.  Shall  we  not  help  each 
other?  15.  He  is  breathing  very  heavily.  16.  Is  he  not 
ashamed  now?  17.  You  have  aged  much.  18.  In  the 
evening  we  went  to  church2  together. 

1  Order? 

2  See  §  125. 


170  COMPOUND  VERBS  XIX 

LESSON   XIX. 

COMPOUND,   REFLEXIVE  AND  IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

229.  COMPOUND    VERBS.    From   the  point  of   view    of 
the  relation   between   the   components,    verb-composition 
is  of  two  kinds: 

(1)  CLOSELY  ATTACHED.     Ex.:    berat' ta  relate,    wider- 
visa  instruct,  anga  concern,  omtala  relate.     Cf.  in  Eng., 
begin,  understand,  upset.     The  verb  proper  stands  last, 
and  the  two  components  can  not   be  separated   by  other 
words.     The  components    are  written   together    without 
intervening   space,  as   one  word.     Except  in  the  case  of 
the   prefixes    be-    and  for-,     the    affix1    is    stressed,  the 
verb  proper  having  secondary  stress. 

(2)  LOOSELY  ATTACHED.     Ex.:  tala  om'  relate,  ga  an' 
do,  be    allowable,  tycka  om'    like.     Cf.    in  Eng.,  get  off, 
set   out,  look    over.     The   verb   proper  stands   first,  and 
the    two   components   can  be   separated  by  other  words.2 
In  writing,  a  space  is  left  between  the  two  components, 
as   between   two   words.     The   stress  rests  on  the  affix1, 
the  verb  proper  being  unstressed. 

230.  There  are  three  types  of  compound  verbs: 

(1)  INSEPARABLE    compound    verbs    are    those   whose 
components  are  always  closely  attached;    the  components 
cannot  be  separated  by  other  words.     Ex.:  berat' ta  relate, 
undervisa  instruct,  anga  concern.    Det  angar  ingen.    That 
does  not  concern  anyone. 

(2)  SEPARABLE  compound  verbs  are  those  whose  com- 
ponents are  always  loosely  attached;  the  components  can 

1  The  term  "affix"  includes  both  "prefix"  and  "suffix". 

2  See  §  230,  note  2. 


XIX  COMPOUND   VERBS  171 

be  separated  by  other  words.  Ex.:  tycka  om'  like,  g& 
an'  do,  be  allowable.  Jag  tycker  om'  honom.  I  like  him. 
Den  dar  boken  tycker  jag  visst  icke  om' .  I  certainly  do 
not  like  that  book.  Jo,  det gar  an' .  Yes,  that's  all  right. 
Det  gar  nog  an'.  That  will  do,  no  doubt. 

(3)  INVERTIBLE  compound  verbs.  Many  compound 
verbs  may  have  either  the  closely  or  the  loosely  attached 
form  of  composition,  without  change  of  meaning.  The 
affix  is  stressed  whether  it  precedes  or  follows  the  verb 
proper.  Ex.:  om'tala  or  tala  om'  relate,  ge'nomlasa  or  lasa 
gc'noni  read  through.  Ex.:  Man  hade  igen'stlingt  (or 
stangt  igen')  luckan.  The  shutter  had  been  closed.  Under 
gravningen  pa'traffade  han  (or  traffade  han  pa'}  en  urna. 
While  digging,  he  came  upon  an  urn.  In  some  cases, 
however,  such  verbs  usually  have  figurative  meaning  when 
closely  attached,  but  literal  meaning  when  loosely  attached. 
Ex.:  Han  a'vbrot  samtalet.  He  discontinued  the  conversa- 
tion. Han  brot  a'v  happen.  He  broke  the  stick. 

Note.  —  i.  In  the  past  participle  the  components  are  always1 
closely  attached,  in  all  types  of  compound  verbs  (even  the  sepa- 
rable). Ex.:  Han  brot  a'v  happen.  Happen  ar  avbruten.  Alia 
tycka  om'  honom.  Han  ar  allmdnt  (universally)  omtyckt.  But  the 
supine  does  not  show  this  peculiarity.  Ex.:  Han  har  brutit  a'v 
happen.  Jag  har  alltid  tyckt  om'  honom.  Concerning  the  present 
participle  of  compound  verbs  see  page  180,  foot-note. 

2.  In  the  loosely  attached  form  of  verb-composition  the  two 
components  are,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  verbs,  not  separated 
by  the  object.  "Ex.:  Jag  lade  ne'd  pennan.  I  put  the  pen  down. 
Jag  lade  ne'd  den.  I  put  it  down.  Hon  bad  oss  att  ej  glomma 
bor't  henne.  She  told  us  not  to  forget  her.  Det  ar  lika  bra  att 
plocka  a'v  baren,  sow  att  grasparvarna  skola  ata  up'p  dem.  It  is 
just  as  well  to  pick  the  berries  as  to  let  the  sparrows  eat  them. 

The  components  are  separated  by  many  adverbs.  Ex.:  Jag  la- 
de icke  ned  pennan.  I  did  not  put  the  pen  down.  Jag  lagger  aid- 
rig  ned  pennan.  Han  lagger  nog  ned  pennan.  Cf.  p.  172,  foot  note  i. 

1    To  this  there  are  few  exceptions  (primarily  in  the  spoken  language). 


172  COMPOUND    VERBS  XIX 

Note  also  separation  such  as  the  following:  Ndr  solen  har  g&tt 
ne'd,  och  luften  blir  avkyld,  stiger  ofta  dimma  upp.  When  the 
sun  has  set  and  the  air  becomes  cooled  off,  fog  often  rises.  Gdr 
del  inte  an'?  Won't  it  do?  Hugger  man  ned  skogen  i  ett  land, 
forsam'ras  klima'tet.  If  the  forests  in  a  country  are  cut  down,  the 
climate  suffers. 

3.  Some   separable   compounds    have  the  same    components    as 
inseparable     compounds,    but     with     entirely     different     meaning, 
being,  in   fact,  different   verbs.     These  are  not  included  under  the 
term  "invertible"  compounds.   Ex.:  anga  concern;  ga   an'   do,    be 
allowable;   avga   depart,   leave;  ga   a'v  break    (intr. ).     Cf.    Eng., 
overlook,  look  over;  upset,  set  up. 

Similarly,  some  separable  compounds  have  the  same  components 
as  invertible  compounds;  as,  utse  or  se  u't  elect,  choose;  se  u't 
look,  appear. 

4.  Compound   verbs    having    the    loosely    attached   form    must 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  a  simple  verb  followed  by  a  preposi- 
tional phrase.     The  affix  of   the   verb-compound   is   stressed,  while 
the  preposition  is  unstressed.1   Ex.:  Han  brot  a'v  happen.   He  broke 
the  stick.    Hanbro't  av  brodet.     He  broke  (a  piece)  of   the  bread. 
En  sats  innehaller  alltid  en  sak,   som  man  ta'lar  om,  och  en  safc, 
som  man   talar  om'.     A   sentence  always  contains  one  thing    that 
one  talks  about,  and  one  thing  that  one  tells.     Bonden  hal'sade  p& 
konungen.    The    peasant   greeted   the    king.     Karl  XII    brukade 
hdlsa  pa'  has  bonderna.     Charles  XII  used  to  visit  the  peasants. 

231.  The  following  prefixes  are  always  closely  attached 
(inseparable):  be-,  bi-,  enl-^,  er-,  for-,  gen-,  har-,  miss-, 
sam-,  urn-,  und-,  van-,  veder-,  a-. 

Adverbs  and  prepositions  may  be  either  closely  or 
loosely  attached  (inseparable,  separable  or  invertible). 

Note  i.  —  Adjective  compounds  are  usually  invertible;  as,  rod- 
mdla  or  mala  rod  paint  red.  Some,  however,  are  inseparable;  as, 
godkanna  approve. 


1  Except,  usually,  when  a  personal  pronoun   follows   the    preposition. 
Ex.:  G&  inte  ifr&'n  mig.     Do  not  go  away  from  me.— The  affix  is  not  infre- 
quently  unstressed  owing  to  the  sentence-rhythm.     Ex.:     Jag  lade  ic'ke  ned 

2  This  prefix,  which  occurs  only  in  one  verb,  entle'diga  dismiss,  is  usually 
unstressed  (cf.  §  229,  1),  but  sometimes  stressed. 


XIX 


COMPOUND  VERBS 


173 


2.  Noun  compounds  are  usually  inseparable;  as,  r&dfrdga  con- 
sult. Some,  however,  are  invertible;  as,  aktgiva  or  giva  ak't  pay 
attention. 

232-  Compound  verbs  do  not  differ  in  their  inflection 
from  simple  verbs,  except  as  indicated  above.  A  synopsis 
of  the  invertible  verb  omtala,  tala  om,  relate,  is  here  given.1 


CLOSELY  ATTACHED 
Pres.      jag  omtalar 
Past  omtalade 

Future          kommer  att  omtala 
Pres.  Perf.  har  omtalat 
Past  Perf.   hade  omtalat 
Fut.   Perf.  kommer  att  ha(va~) 

omtalat 
5-Passive: 
Pres.  omtalas 

Past  omt&lades 

Future          kom  mer  a  tt  om  talas 
Pres.  Perf.  har  omtalats 
Past  Perf.    hade  omtalats 
Fut.   Perf.    kommer  att  ha(vd} 

omtalats 

Auxiliary-Passive:2 
Pres.  blir  omtalad 

Past  blev  omtalad 

Future          kommer  att  bli(va) 

omtalad 

Pres.  Perf.  har  blivit  omtalad 
Past  Perf.  hade  blivit  omtalad 
Fut.  Perf.  kommer  att  ha(va~) 

blivit  omtalad 


LOOSELY  ATTACHED 
talar  om 
talade  om 

kommer  att  tala  om 
har  talat  om 
hade  talat  om 
kommer  att  ha(va~)  talat 
om 

talas  om 
taladcs  om 

kommer  att  talas  om 
har  talats  om 
hade  talats  om 
kommer  att  ha(va)  talats 
ont 


1  The  stress  is  on  om,  om-  in  every  case. 

2  Observe  that  the  auxiliary-passive,  being  formed  with  the 
ciple,  has  no  loosely  attached  forms;  see  §  230,  note  1. 


ist  parti- 


174  REFLEXIVE  VERBS  XIX 

REFLEXIVE    VERBS. 

233.  A  reflexive  verb  is  one  that  has  as  its  object  a 
reflexive  pronoun  (see  §  187),  that  is,  a  pronoun  refer- 
ring back  to  the  subject;  the  subject  is  both  the  doer 
and  the  recipient  of  the  action.  Reflexive  verbs  are 
used  much  more  extensively  in  Swedish  than  in  English. 
They  are  most  conveniently  divided  into  two  groups: 

(i)  REFLEXIVE  FORMS.  Any  transitive  verb  whose 
sense  permits  may  be  used  with  reflexive  meaning, 
through  the  addition  of  the  reflexive  pronouns;  as, 
tvinga  sig  force  one's  self,  skada  sig  hurt  one's  self.  Ex.: 
En  bra  karl  hjdlper  sig  sjalv.  A  good  man  helps  himself. 

Frequently  the  verb  has  a  developed  meaning  when 
used  in  the  reflexive  forms.  Particularly  often  do  the 
reflexive  forms  have  the  intransitive  meaning  correspond- 
ing to  the  transitive  meaning  of  the  non-reflexive  forms. 
In  these  cases  English  almost  always  uses  merely  an 
intransitive  verb,1  without  the  reflexive  pronoun.  In 
many  verbs  the  English  idiom  differs  from  the  Swedish 
also  in  other  respects.  Examples  of  difference  in  idiom 
are:  gifta  sig  marry  (intr.),  be  married;  glddja  sig 
rejoice;  tvdtta  sig  wash  (intr.),  wash  one's  self;  bbja  sig 
bend  (intr.),  stoop;  lagga  sig  lie  down,  go  to  bed;  sdtta 
sig  sit  down,  be  seated;  befin'na  sig  be,  do  (intr.),  fare;  lara 
(sig}^  learn;  erinra  sig  remember;  fbrky'la  sig  catch  a  cold; 
kliida  sig  dress  (intr.),  dress  one's  self;  rora  sig  move 
(intr.);  andra  sig  change  (intr.);  akta  sig  take  care,  be 
on  one's  guard;  vdnda  sig  turn  (intr.);  visa  sig  appear. 

1  Many   English  verbs   are   either   transitive   or  intransitive;  as,  bend, 
move,   change,   turn.     As   this  is   much  less  frequently  the  case  in  Swedish, 
care   must   be   taken   not   to   transfer  the   English  idiom  to  Swedish,  incor- 
rectly . 

2  Thi 
§242,1. 


rectly  . 

2   This   verb   may  also   be  used   intransitively   without  sig-     See  example, 


XIX  REFLEXIVE  VERBS  175 


erinrar  mig  hans  utseende.  I  recollect  his  ap- 
pearance. Vi  satte  oss  i  skitggan.  We  sat  down  in  the 
shade.  Jag  kanner  mig  trbtt  i  dag.  I  feel  tired  to-day. 
Angrar  han  sig  ?  Does  he  repent? 

(2)  REFLEXIVE  VERBS.  Some  verbs  are  used  only  re- 
flexively,  that  is,  they  are  never  used  without  a  reflex- 
ive pronoun;  as,  begi'va  sig  betake  one's  self;  misstaga 
sig  be  mistaken;  fbrhas'ta  sig  be  over  hasty,  act  under 
the  impulse  of  one's  first  feelings. 

Note.  —  i.  There  is  no  reflexive  passive. 

2.  The  intensive   pronoun  sjalv   (see  §  187,  note)  may   be  used 
with  the  reflexive  pronouns,  but  only  for  emphasis  or  contrast.  Ex.  : 
Enva'r   kanner   sig   sjalv    bast.     Each    one  knows   himself  best. 
Man  bor  alska  sin  ndsta  nier  an  sig  sjalv.    One  should  love  one's 
neighbor  more  than  one's  self. 

3.  Swedish  sometimes  uses  the  ending  -s  to  express  the  reflexive 
idea  (see  §  225,  note  i);   as,  gladjas  (=  gladja   sig-)   rejoice;   nar- 
mas  (=  narma  sig}  approach;  skammas  be  ashamed. 

234.  The  inflection  of  these  verbs  is  regular,  but  care 
must   be  taken    to  employ  the  proper  reflexive  pronouns 
in  the  various  persons,  singular  and  plural. 
PRESENT  PAST 

jag  misstager  mig  misstog  mig 

du  misstager  dig  misstog  dig 

ni  misstager  er  misstog  er 

/tan,  /ion,  den,  det  misstager  sig         misstog  sig 
i'i  misstaga  oss  misstog  o  oss 

I  misstagen  eder  misstogen  eder 

de  misstaga  sig  misstogo  sig 

FUTURE         jag  kommer  aft  misstaga  mig 
PRES.  PERF.  jag  har  misstagit  mig 
PAST  PERF.  jag  hade  misstagit  mig 
FUT.  PERF.    jag  kommer  att  ha(va)   misstagit  mig 


176  IMPERSONAL    VERBS  XIX 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

235-   Impersonal  verbs1  are    used  more   extensively    in 
Swedish  than  in  English.     They  are  of  various  types: 

(1)  Verbs   referring    to    the  phenomena  of  nature;   as, 
det  regnar  it  is  raining,  i  gar  rcgnade  det  it  rained  yes- 
terdajr,  det  snbar  it  is  snowing,  det  fryser  it  is   freezing, 
det   har   askat    it    has    been    thundering,    det  blaser  it  is 
windy,  det  ar  varmt  it  is  warm,  det  ar  mbrkt  it  is  dark, 
det  ar  sommar  it  is  summer. 

(2)  A  large  variety  of  other  expressions;   as,  det  knac- 
kar  somebody  is  knocking,  det  ringer  there  is  a  ring,  det 
rbr  sig  something   is   moving,  det  gdller   concern,  be  at 
stake,  det  bar  av  go.     Hur  star  det  till  vied  dig?     How 
are  you?     Det  varker  i  armen.     I  have  a  pain  in  my  arm. 
/  detsam'ma  knacka.de  det  pa  hans  dorr.     Just  then  there 
was  a  knock  at  his  door.     Det  brinner  i  byn.     There   is 
a  fire  in  the  village.     Han  arbetar,  som  om  det  gdUde  //- 
•vet.     He  is  working  as  if  it  were  a  matter  of  life  and  death. 

(3)  In   the  case  of  many   verbs,  many  of   these  even 
intransitive2,  the  ^-passive  may  be  used  impersonally.  Ex.: 
Det  dansades  hela  natten.     There  was  dancing  all   night. 
Har  maste  stigas  hbgst  f'orsik' tigt.     You  have  to  step  very 
carefully   here.     Det    malas    och  fejas  over    allt  i  huset. 
The    whole    house    is  being   painted    and    cleaned.     Det 
Idses,    arbetas  och    dies   i  samma   rum.     They   eat,    work 
and  sleep  in   the   same    room.     Men    runt  ikring    sores, 
angslas    av  oroliga   sinnen,    anas  av    hjdrtan,  som   Idngta. 
Och  det  grates  mot  brngotl,    som    kantats   vied  spetsar,    och 
det  skrattas  i  drbmmar  .    .    .  3      But  round  about,   people 

1  Some  of  these  (impersonal  forms)  may  also  be  used  with   a   personal 
subject;   others  (impersonal  -verbs),  only  as  itnpersonals. 

2  In  fact,  most  intransitive  verbs  can  be  used  impersonally  in  the  passive. 

3  Quoted  from  Levertin  Samlade  Skrifter,  vol.  Ill,  p.  207. 


XIX  IMPERSONAL   VERBS  177 

are  sleeping,  there  is  worrying  by  restless  minds,  fore- 
boding by  hearts  that  long.  And  some  are  weeping 
on  pillows  that  have  been  bordered  with  lace,  and  some 
are  laughing  in  their  dreams  .  .  . 

Note.  —  Det  is  also  used  as  an  expletive,  anticipating  the  sub- 
ject of  a  verb,  corresponding  to  Eng.  "there".  In  Swedish,  contrary 
to  the  practice  in  German,  the  verb  is  always  put  in  the  sin- 
gular, irrespective  of  the  number  of  the  following  noun,  that  is, 
the  verb  agrees  with  the  formal,  and  not  with  the  real  subject. 
Ex.:  Det  var  en  g&ng  en  liten  gosse,  som  .  .  .  There  was  once 
a  little  boy  who  .  .  .  Det  bar  rdtt  mdnga  svenskar  hdr  i  staden. 
There  are  rather  many  Swedes  living  in  this  town.  Det  har  gatt 
manga  somrar  sedan  dess.  Many  summers  have  passed  since 
then.  Det  syns  ansikten  bakom  fonsterrutorna.  Faces  appear 
behind  the  window-panes.  Hade  det  hant  ndgotf  Had  anything 
happened?  Det  hade  fallit  mycket  sno.  Much  snow  had  fallen. 

Note  especially  the  expressions  det  finn(e)s  (rarely  and  stiffly, 
dctgii'cs;  somewhat  more  frequently  det  ges}  and  det  ar,  denoting 
mere  existence.  Det  ar  is  more  definite  than  det  finns.  Ex.:  Det 
gives  sanningar,  som  ej  kunna  javas.  There  are  truths  that  can 
not  be  challenged.  Det  finns  mdnniskor,  som  icke  hava  ndgot 
samretc.  There  are  people  who  have  no  conscience.  Har  finns 
(det)  sd  mycket  att  titta  pd.  There  is  so  much  to  look  at  here.  Det 
fauns  fartyg  av  mdnga  olika  slag.  There  were  ships  of  many 
different  kinds.  Jag  undrar  om  det  finns  levande  varelser  dar. 
I  wonder  if  there  are  living  beings  there.  Det  fanns  inga  bil- 
jet'ter  kvar.  There  were  no  tickets  left.  Det  finnes  64  (read  sex- 
tify'ra)  rutor  pa  ett  schackbrade.  There  are  64  squares  on  a 
chess-board.  Det  finnes  mdnga  gossar,  som  heta  Karl.  There 
are  many  boys  whose  name  is  Carl.  Det  finns  mdnga  utlanning- 
ar  i  Stockholm.  There  are  many  foreigners  in  Stockholm.  Det 
ar  ingenting  annat  att  gora  an  .  .  .  There  is  nothing  else  to  do 
than  .  .  .  Det  ar  mdnga,  som  tro  det.  There  are  many  who 
believe  that.  Det  var  en  gdng  tre  pojkar,  som  gingo  i  samma 
skola.  There  were  once  three  boys  who  attended  the  same  school. 

236.  ACCENT:1  Verbs  containing  the  unstressed  pre- 
fixes be-  and  for-  have  the  acute  accent  in  all  forms 

1  Uists  of  words  having  tbe  acute  accent  •will  now  be  discontinued,  ex- 
cept as  the  words  may  occur  in  the  grammar  lesson  (outside  of  examples). 


1 78  VERBS-COMPOUND,  REFLEXIVE,  IMPERSONAL    XIX 

in  the  greater  part  of  Sweden;1  as,  befin'na,  begi'ra,  fbr- 
ky'la,  forhas'ta. 

237.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  In  the  case  of  invertible 
compounds  the  written  language  to  a  large  extent  pre- 
fers the  closely  attached  form,2  while  the  spoken  language 
in  the  case  of  most  verbs  regularly  employs  the  loosely 
attached  form. 

(2)  Very  many  inseparable  compound  verbs  belong  pri- 
marily to  the  written  language. 

EXERCISE  XIX. 

Note.  —  Beginning  with  this  exercise,  the  general  vocabulary 
must  be  consulted  for  unfamiliar  words  and  idioms. 

And  the  river  grew  and  grew.  At  last  it  reached  a 
large  lake,  and  hurled  itself  into  its  waves.  Violanta 
followed  the  shore  of  the  lake.  At  the  opposite  end  of 
the  lake,  the  river  came  forth  again,  stronger  and  fresher, 
as  if  it  had  gathered  new  strength  from  its  water. 

But  here  [there]  was8  a  mill.  High  up  on  the  stairs 
above  the  wheels  stood  the  miller  himself.  He  was  round 
and  white  as  a  flour-bag,  and  beside  him  stood  his  three 
little  children,  round  and  white  as  freshly-baked  wheat- 
rolls,  and  with  eyes  as  black  as  raisins. 

When  the  miller  caught  sight  of  the  girl  who  came 
running,  he  called  to  her:  "Whither  away4,  little  girl, 
so  early  in5  the  day?" — "To  the  wild  waves  of  the  sea," 
answered  Violanta,  and  ran  on. — "O  wait  a  little  and 
calm  yourself!"  cried  the  miller.  "No  waves  can  be 
wilder  than  the  waves  in  the  river,  but  I  have  never- 

1  The  forms  in  -er(as  befin'ner.forky'ler^avz  the  acute  accent  everywhere. 

2  Even   in   the   written   language  the  closely  attached  form  of  invertible 
compounds  is  in  most  forms  of  style  much  less  common  now  than  formerly. 

3  Use  a  form  of  "ligga". 

4  For  away  use  the  impersonal  "det  bar  av":  "Vart  bar  det  av  ?" 


XIX    VERBS— COMPOUND,  REFLEXIVE,  IMPERSONAL     179 

theless  forced  them  to  turn  the  mill-wheels  and  grind 
the  grain.  And  you  may  be  sure  things  are  jolly  here.1 
There  is  dancing2  and  work2  the  whole  day." 

Violahta  stopped.  She  heard  the  mill-wheels  rumble 
and  clatter.  She  heard  people  laughing3  and  singing3 
in  the  mill.  "If  you  want  to  enter4  my  service,"  said 
the  stout  miller,  "you  shall  get  plenty  of  food  and  drink, 
and  a  new  dress  for5  Christmas." — "What  are  the  dress- 
goods  like?"6  asked  Violanta. — "You  can  see7  that  then," 
answered  the  miller  and  laughed. 

Violanta  entered8  the  service  of9  the  miller.  The 
wheels  went  night  and  day.  Bag  after  bag  of  the  very 
whitest  flour  was  carried  up.  The  miller  was  just  as 
friendly  and  good  as  he  was  stout,  and  his  wife  was  still 
more  friendly,  and  still  more  fat. 

The  only  ones  who  did  not  work  were  the  little  chil- 
dren. They  sat  on  the  flour-bags  most  of  the  time  eat- 
ing10 wheat-rolls,  played  [at]  hide-and-seek  among  the 
bags,  or  stood  looking10  at  the  mill-wheels. 

1  Du  ma  tro,    att   bar  gar   det  6    What  are  .  .  .  like  hurudant  ar. 
lustigt  till.  7   Can  see  far  se. 

2  Use  the  impersonal  passive.  8   Tog. 

3  Use  the  infinitive.  9   Hos. 

4,  Komma  i.  1O   Do  not  use  a  participle   in  Swedish. 

5   Till. 


1 80  PARTICIPLES  XX 

LESSON  XX. 

PARTICIPLES,  INFINITIVES,  IMPERATIVE. 

238.  PRESENT  PARTICIPLE.  The  present  participle1 
ends  in  -ande,  but  verbs  whose  infinitives  end  in  a 
stressed  vowel  (Third  Weak  Conjugation  and  irregular 
strong  verbs)  have  -ende;  as,  talande,  kopande,  finnande; 
but  troende,  seende. 

The  present  participle  is  indeclinable  (see  §  153),  but 
it  has  -s  in  the  genitive  when  used  as  a  noun;  as,  en 
dbendes  sista  ord  the  last  words  of  a  dying  person.  Ibland 
kunna  vi  t.  o.  m.  (=  till  och  med}  pa  stilen  gissa  oss  till 
den  skrivandes  yrke.  Sometimes  we  can  even  guess  the 
writer's  occupation  from  his  handwriting. 

When  employed  as  an  adjective,  the  present  participle 
may  be  compared  by  means  of  mer(a),  mest. 

Note.  —  i.  The  verbs giva  (ge),  ha(va},  bli(va),  be(dja),  ta(ga], 
dra(ga]  employ  only  the  longer  form  (see  §  203,  2)  in  the  present 
participle. 

2.  The  present  participle  of  deponents  .ends  in  -ande  (-ende}, 
but  a  few  have  the  ending  -andes  when  not  used  attributively.  Many 
have  no  present  participle.  Ex.:  Minnandes  (from  minnas}  sitt 
lofte  infann  han  sig,  ehuru  han  ar  en  dldrande  (from  dldras) 
man.  Remembering  his  promise,  he  came,  although  he  is  getting 
well  along  in  years. 

Likewise  a  few  verbs  that  are  not  deponents  may  in  certain  expres- 
sions end  in  -andes,  which,  however,  in  all  such  cases  is  more  collo- 
quial than  -ande.  Ex.:  Han  kom  dkande(s}.  He  came  driving. 
Hon  skyndade  till  fonstret  for  att  se  efter,  vem  soin  kom  dkande. 
She  hurried  to  the  window  to  see  who  came  driving. 

1  In  the  case  of  compound  verbs,  only  the  closely  attached  form  can  be 
employed  when  the  present  participle  is  used  attributively;  in  other  cases 
the  loosely  attached  form  of  composition  is  possible.  Tagande  av  hatten, 
steg  jag  at  sidan  for  att  liimna  flats  at  den  gatnle.  Taking  off  my  hat,  I  stepped 
aside  to  make  room  for  the  old  man.  Dagarnas  avtagande  langd  the  di- 
minishing length  of  the  days. 


XX  PARTICIPLES  181 

239-  The  present  participle  is  used1:  (i)  As  an  adjec- 
tive, attributively  or  predicatively.  As  is  the  case  with 
many  adjectives,  so  some  adjectival  participles  can  be  used 
adverbially.2  Ex.:  De  funno  ett  sovande  barn.  They  found 
a  sleeping  child.  Hon  sag p&  honom  med  en  forskande  och 
djup  blick.  She  looked  at  him  with  an  enquiring  and  pen- 
etrating glance.  Karl  XII  vann  lysande  segrar.  Charles 
XII  won  brilliant  victories.  De  akande  lyckades  rad- 
da  sig,  men  hast  och  sldde  forsvun'no  i  vaken.  The  occu- 
pants succeeded  in  saving  themselves,  but  the  horse  and 
sleigh  disappeared  in  the  hole  (in  the  ice).  Hasten  rik- 
tade  en  blick  pa  honom,  som  var  bade  bedjande  och  fore- 
braende.  The  horse  directed  at  him  a  glance  that  was 
both  suppliant  and  reproachful.  Kolden  dr  bitande.  The 
cold  is  piercing.  Adv. :  Han  talade  svenska  flytande.  He 
spoke  Swedish  fluently.  Det  var  kvdvande  hett.  It  was 
stiflingly  hot. 

(2)  As  a  modifier  of  both  subject  and  verb.  Ex.:  Hon 
gick  tiggande  kring  landet.  She  went  about  the  country 
begging.  Pojken  sprang  gr&tande  hem.  The  boy  ran 
home  weeping.  Han  svarade  skrattande.  He  answered 
laughing.  De  kommo  akande  i  en  droska.  They  came 
riding  in  a  cab.  Han  foil  av  vagnen  och  blev  liggande  i 
diket,  tills  folk  kom  och  hjdlpte  honom.  He  fell  off  the  wagon 
and  lay  (remained  lying)  in  the  ditch  until  people  came 
and  helped  him. 

Note.  —  i.  Where  English  uses  the  participle  to  tell  the  circum- 
stances under  which  the  act  of  the  main  verb  takes  place  (time, 
cause,  concession,  etc.),  Swedish  usually  employs  a  subordinate 
clause  instead,  or  coordination.  Ex.:  Being  ill,  I  decided  to  stay 
at  home.  Emedan  jag  var  sjuk,  beslu'tade  jag  att  stanna  hemma. 
Or,  Jag  var  sjuk  och  beslu'tade  (ddrfor]  att  stanna  hemma. 

1  The  present  participle  is  used  much  more  sparingly  in  Swedish    than   in 
English. 

2  The  pres.  part.,  being  indeclinable,  does  not  add   -/    -when  used  as   an 


1 82  PARTICIPLES  XX 

2.  After  the  verbs  hora  and  se,  Swedish  does  not  use  the  parti- 
ciple, as    English   may  do.     Ex.:  Jag  horde  dem    tala.     I   heard 
them  talking.    Jag  har  hort  honom  berom'mas  som  talare,     I  have 
heard  him  praised  as  a  speaker.     Det  blcv  sd  tyst,  sd  tyst  i  ruin- 
met,  att  jag  horde  mitt  hjarta  sld.     It  became  so  very  quiet  in  the 
room,  that  I  heard  my  heart  beating.  —  On  the  use  of  the  infinitive  in 
Swedish,  where  English  idiom  requires  the  verbal  noun,  see  §  242,  2. 

3.  As  English  uses  the  participial  ending  -ing,  so  Swedish  em- 
ploys -ande,  -ende  in  the  formation  of  verbal  nouns.  Ex. :  Det  var  ett 
fasligt  springande  fram  och  tillba'ka.   That  (or,  there)  was  an  awful 
running  back  and  forth.     Tankandet  forsiggar  i  allmanhet  mycket 
snabbare   an    talandet   och    horandet.     Thought    is    usually  much 
more  rapid  than   speech  and  hearing. 

4.  Swedish  does  not  employ  the  participle  in   the  formation    of 
a  progressive  form,  as  English  does;  see  §§  47;  245. 

240.  PAST  PARTICIPLE.     In  weak  verbs  the    past   par- 
ticiple   can    be  found   by   dropping    the   -e   of   the   past 
indicative;  on  the  formation  of   the  past  part,  of    strong 
verbs  see  §  181,  and  cf.  §  201,  note  i. 

Note.  —  i.  Transitive  verbs,  both  cursive  and  terminative  (see 
page  Si,  foot-note  2)  have  past  participles,  which  have  passive  mean- 
ing; as,  en  krossad  tallrik  a  broken  plate,  en  aktad  medborgare  a 
respected  citizen.  Also  intransitive  terminative  verbs  have  past 
participles;  their  meaning  is  active;  as,  en  bortflugen  fagel  a  bird 
that  has  escaped.  The  meaning  of  the  past  participle  varies  as  follows: 
Transitive  terminative  action  completed,  passive:  funnen 

Transitive  cursive  action  going  on,  passive:    alskad 

Intransitive  terminative  action  completed,  active:  kommen 

Intransitive  cursive  no  past  participle 

2.  Most  deponents  have  no  past  participle. 

3.  On   the   supine   as   connected    with   the   neuter   of    the    past 
part.,  see  §  181. — On  the  past  part,  of  comp.  verbs  see  §  230,  note  i. 

241.  The  past  participle   is   inflected  and  used  like  an 
adjective  (see  §  151);  when  used  substantively,   it  adds 
-5    in    the    genitive.     Ex.:    Var  alskade   kommg  our   be- 
loved king.    Jag  har   en    hund,    kallad  Kato.     I  have    a 
dog  called    Cato.     Segern   ar  mmnen    (cf.  §  223,    note). 


XX  PARTICIPLES,  INFINITIVE  183 

The  victory  is  won.  Rummcn  dro  fbre'nade  genom  en 
smal  gang.  The  rooms  are  connected  by  a  narrow  pas- 
sage. Observe1™  den  dndrade  tiden.  Notice  the  change 
in  time.  Min  rock  dr  utsliten.  My  coat  is  worn  out. 
Frdn  den  tid,  da  runorna  utgjorde  det  enda  slags  skrift, 
som  stod  vara  forfdder  till  btids,  hava  m  i  regel  blott  kort- 
fattade  uppteckningar  beva'rade.  From  the  time  when  the 
runes  were  the  only  kind  of  writing  at  the  disposal  of 
our  ancestors,  we  have  as  a  rule  only  brief  records  pre- 
served. Den  dlskades  namn  the  name  of  the  loved  one. 

Note  especially  its  use  in  forming  the  auxiliary- passive; 
see  §  222. 

Note.  —  The  past  participle  of  terminative  verbs,  both  transitive 
and  intransitive,  denotes  an  action  as  completed  (see  §  240,  note  i). 
In  §  223,  note,  we  have  seen  the  past  participle  of  transitive 
terminative  verbs  used  in  a  passive  sense  with  vara,  to  denote  a 
result  attained  in  the  past  as  remaining  in  the  present. 

The  past  participle  of  intransitive  terminative  verbs  may  be 
used  in  an  active  sense  (cf.  §  240,  note  i)  with  vara,  to  denote  a 
result  attained  in  past  time  as  remaining  in  the  present.  Ex.: 
V&ren  dr  kommen.  Spring  is  here.  Sdngen  ar  tystnad.  The 
singing  has  ceased.  Blomman  ar  vissnad.  The  flower  is  with- 
ered. Ar  han  a'nnu  icke  dterkommen?  Has  he  not  returned  yet? 
(Isn't  he  back  yet?)  Angaren  ar  sjunken.  The  steamer  has  gone 
down.  Han  var  redan  gdngen.  He  was  already  gone.  Nar  han 
vaknade,  var  mdnen  uppgdngen  for  langesedan.  When  he  awoke, 
the  moon  had  long  been  up. 

INFINITIVE.1 

242.  The  leading  differences  between  Swedish  and  Eng- 
lish in  the  use  of  the  infinitive  are: 


The  future  infinitive,  which  is  of  rare  occurrence,  is  formed  by  means  of 
inf.  komma,  followed  by  the  pres.  inf.  with  att  (rarely  with  skola  and  the 


.  inf.);  as,  komma  att  tala,  komma  att  kallas.  Ex.:  Drojer  Siljans  tillfrysning 
janua'ri.  anses  den  komma  att  utebliva  hela  vintern.  If  (Lake)  Siljan  does 
freeze  during  January,  it  is  thought  probable  that  it  will  not  freeze  all 
ter. —  The  present  and  perfect  infinitives  have  been  given  in  the  para- 
digms under  the  various  conjugations,  §§  185;  193;  195;  202;  221. 


1 84  INFINITIVE 

(1)  Swedish  much  more  frequently   uses  the  infinitive 
without  att  to1,  many  Swedish  verbs  being   followed   by 
the  infinitive  with  or  without  att,  while  the    correspond- 
ing English  verbs  require  "to";   as,   lova  promise,    synas 
seem,  appear,  tanka  intend,  borja  begin,  bedja  ask,  bnska 
wish.     Ex.:    Vi  Idra  oss  alia  {att)  tala,  innan  vi  lara  (atf) 
skriva.     We  all  learn  to  talk  before  we    learn    to    write. 
Han  bad  mig  (att)  skriva  genasfi.     He  asked  me  to  write 
at   once.    Jag  tanker    (att)    resa  i  morgon.     I    intend    to 
leave  to-morrow. 

(2)  Swedish    in    several    constructions  employs  the  in- 
finitive where  English  has  the  verbal  noun: 

(a)  Many  prepositions  can  be  followed  by  att  and  the 
infinitive  when  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  leading  verb3.  The  English  idiom  requires 
a  preposition  with  the  verbal  noun,  and  sometimes  the  in- 
finitive with  "to"  (but  without  a  preposition4).  Ex.: 
Han  gick  forbi'  utan  att  halsa.  He  passed  without 
greeting.  Ingen  tankte  p&  att  vila.  No  one  thought  of 
resting.  Efter  att  ha  last  brevet,  kastade  han  det  i  elden. 
After  having  read  the  letter,  he  threw  it  into  the  fire. 
Men  de  sovo,  utan  att  ett  bgonblick  stbras  av  oljiidet.  But 
they  slept,  without  being  for  a  moment  disturbed  by  the 
noise.  Fiskare  utmarka  sig  ofta  for  stor  skicklighet  i  att 
segla.  Fishermen  often  display  great  skill  in  sailing. 

1  As  in  English,  so  in  Swedish,  most  auxiliaries  are  not  followed  by   the 
sign  of  the  infinitive. 

2  Or,  Han  bad  mig,  att  jag  skulle  skriva  genast. 

3  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  would  not  be  the  same  as  that  of  the 
leading  verb,  Swedish  uses  after  the  preposition,  att  that,  and    a  finite   form 
of  the  verb.     Ex.:    Och  utan  att  jag  markte  det,  sloto  sig  inina  iigon.    And  my  eyes 
closed  without  my  noticing  it.     Han  avliigsnade  sis,   utan  att  nagon   visste  diir- 
fiiti' .     He  went  away  without  anyone's  knowing  of  it. 

4  The  Swedish  prepositions  that  may  be  thus  used    are   much   more   nu- 
merous than  is  the  case  in  French   and   German.     This  use  hardly  occurs  in 
English;  but  observe:     "There  is  nothing  to  do  except  to   go   along."     "He 
is  about  to  go." 


XX  INFINITIVE  185 

Ankan  livndrde  sig  med  aft  sticka,  sy  och  tvdtta.  The 
widow  supported  herself  by  knitting,  sewing  and  wash- 
ing. Du  far  vdlja  emcl'lan  att  sitta  stilla  och  att  bli  ut- 
visad.  You  may  choose  between  sitting  still  and  being 
dismissed.  Genom  att  vara  sparsam,  blir  man  rik.  One 
becomes  rich  through  saving.  Jag  dr  stolt  over  att  vara 
svensk.  I  am  proud  of  being  Swedish.  Jag  trottnade  pd 
att  vdnta.  I  became  tired  of  waiting.  Jag  dr  glad  over 
att  vara  hemma  igeri .  I  am  glad  to  be  at  home  again. 
Han  strdvar  efter  att  bliva  rik.  He  is  striving  to  become 
rich.  Hunden  var  rddd  for  att  bada.  The  dog  didn't  like 
to  have  his  bath. 

(b)  When    Swedish    has   the  infinitive  depending  on  a 
noun,  English  frequently  uses  the  verbal   noun    preceded 
by  the  preposition  "of".     Also  after   adjectives,   English 
sometimes  uses  the   verbal    noun.     Ex.:    Jag    hade    nbjet 
(atf)  mottaga  ert  brev.      I    had    the    pleasure    of    receiv- 
ing your  letter.     Konsten  att  bli  rik  the  art  of  becoming 
rich;  faran  att  uppskjiita  the   danger    of    procrastinating. 
Aran    av   att  ha    utfbrt  ett  sadant   arbete    dr  stor.     The 
honor  of  having  completed  such  a  work  is  great.    Boken 
dr  icke  vdrd  att  lasa.     The  book  is  not  worth  reading. 

(c)  A  number  of  English  verbs  may  be  followed  either 
by  the  infinitive  or  the  verbal  noun;   a  few  are  regularly 
followed  by  the  verbal  noun.     Swedish  idiom  in  all  such 
cases  requires  the  infinitive.     Ex. :   Han  undvek  att  svara 
mig.    He   avoided    answering    me.     Hon    har  upphort  att 
sjunga.    She  has  ceased  singing  (to  sing).    Han  har  slu- 
tat  att  arbeta.     He  has  stopped  working. 

Note.  —  i.  Swedish  sometimes  uses  the  infinitive  (with  the  subject 
in  the  objective  form  in  the  case  of  pronouns)  in  indirect  state- 
ment, where  English  idiom  requires  a  clause.  Ex.:  Jag  tror  mig 
hava  ratt.  I  believe  that  I  am  right.  Han  s&geY  sig  hava  lidit 


1 86  INFINITIVE,  IMPERATIVE  XX 

mycket.  He  says  that  he  has  suffered  much.  Man  pastod  honom 
vara  skyldig.  People  declared  that  he  was  guilty.  Jag  ansermig 
uppfylla  min  skyldighet.  I  feel  that  I  am  doing  my  duty.  Jag 
tyckte  ntig  hora  en  stamma.  I  thought  that  I  heard  a  voice. 

Both  Swedish  and  English  employ  the  infinitive  when  the  main 
verb  is  passive,  but  Swedish  does  not  use  att  to.  Ex.:  Han  sades 
hava  lidit  mycket.  He  was  said  to  have  suffered  much.  Han  pd- 
stods  vara  oskyldig.  He  was  declared  to  be  innocent. 

2.  The  auxiliary  of    the  'perfect    infinitive    is    not    infrequently 
omitted  in  the  written  language,  the  supine  alone  being  used.  Ex.: 
Karl  XII  horde  dtervant  tidigare.     Charles    XII   ought   to   have 
returned  sooner.     Hon  skulle  icke  hort  honom,  om  han  talat.    She 
would    not  have  heard  him  if  he  had    spoken.    Den  synes   varit 
skriven  for  Idnge  sedan.     It  seems  to  have  been  written  long  ago. 

3.  In   Swedish,  as   in   English,  purpose  is   frequently  expressed 
by   the  infinitive  with   att  to,  when   the   subject   of   the  purpose 
clause  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  main  verb.     In  Swedish,  however, 
the   preposition  for  is   usually  placed  before   att.     Ex.:  Jag  har 
kommit  hit  for  a,tt  tala  rued  dig  om  ett  och  annat.     I   have  come 
here  to  talk  to  you  about  a  few  things.    Da  reste  han  sig  uppfor 
att  gd.    Then  he  got  up  to  go.     Ett  lejon  hade  lagt  sig  att  sova, 
men  vacktes  plotsligt.    A  lion  had  lain  down    to   sleep,    but  was 
suddenly  awakened. 

4.  Concerning  the  exclusive  use  of  the  infinitive  in  Swedish  after 
the  verbs  se  and  hora,  see  §  239,  note  2. 

5.  Concerning  word-order  in  connection   with   the  infinitive,   see 
§  142,  end,  and  note. 

IMPERATIVE. 

243.  Second  person  singular.1  The  mere  stem  of  the 
verb  is  used  (see  page  117,  foot-note).  Its  forms  are 
accordingly:  (i)  tala,  (n)  kbp,  (in)  tro,  (STR.)  fain. 

First  person  plural:  lat  (or  latoni)  oss  tala,  kopa,  tro,finna. 

Second  person  plural.  This  is  identical  with  the  cor- 
responding form  of  the  present  indicative:  talen,  kopen, 

1  The  imperative  singular  is  employed  more  extensively  than  the  pro- 
noun du  is;  in  addressing  persons  to  -whom  du  would  not  be  used  (but  the 
title),  the  title  in  direct  address  is  sometimes  added  in  speaking. 


XX  IMPERATIVE,  SYNTACTICAL  REMARKS  187 

tron,  finnen.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  the  elevated  style;  out- 
side of  this  the  singular  imperative  is  generally  used  also 
for  the  plural.1 

Note.  —  i.  The  imperative  of  the  passive  can  not  be  used.  Depo- 
nents (see  §  225)  add  -s  to  the  forms  given  in  §  243;  in  the  forms 
that  have  an  auxiliary,  the  -s  is  added  to  the  dependent  infinitive 
(cf.  §  221).  Ex.:  Minns  detta  !  Remember  this.  Ldt  oss  min- 
nas  detta!  Let  us  remember  this.  Nyps  inte !  Don't  pinch. 
Sparkas  inte!  Don't  kick. 

2.  Formerly  all  Swedish  verbs  except  those  whose  infinitives  end 
in   a  stressed   vowel  had  the  ending  -ont  in  the  first  person    plural 
of  the  imperative.    This  is  now  archaic,  and  is  used  only  in  certain 
forms  of  style  (primarily  in   the   ecclesiastical    style).     Only   Idla, 
employed  as  the    auxiliary   in   the   first   person   plural    imperative, 
may  now  end  in  -om;  but  even  this  has  archaic  associations,    and 
the  singular  Idt  is  generally  used  instead.    Ex. :  Tackom  och  lovom 
Herranz!     Let  us  thank  and  praise  the  Lord.     Ldtom   oss   bedja. 
Let  us  pray.     Ldtom  oss  skarskdda  vardera   slaget  for  sig.    Let 
us  examine  each  kind  by  itself.     Ldt   oss   lamna   det  heir  amnet. 
Let  us  leave  this  subject. 

3.  The  subject  of  the  imperative  is  not  frequently  expressed,  but 
when  used,  it  follows  the  verb-form.     Ex.:  Skotnier,  sd  skall  jag 
skuta  wig.     You  take  care  of  yourself,  and  I'll  take    care   of   my- 
self.    Kom  dti,  det  tir  inte  farligt.    Come  on,  it's  not  dangerous. 
Kotn  dn   (pointing  to  a  certain  one),    men    inte    ni    andra.     You 
come,  but  not  the  rest  of  you. 

SYNTACTICAL    REMARKS. 

244.  PAST  FOR  PRESENT.  Swedish  sometimes  uses  the 
past  tense  of  the  verb  vara  in  exclamations,  where  the 
English  idiom  requires  the  present.  This  use  of  the  past 
tense  emphasizes  the  first  impression,  which  is  already 
past.  Coming  to  something  which  one  considers  beauti- 

1  The  use  of  the  singular  imperative  for  the  plural  is  accordingly  higher 
stylistically  than  the  use  of  the  indicative  singular  for  the  plural;  it   should 
be  remembered  that  the  sing,  imperative  replaces  a  form  with  the  ending 
~en,  which  is  limited  to  the  elevated  style. 

2  Archaic  for  Herren. 


1 88  SYNTACTICAL  REMARKS 

ful  one  could  say:  Det  var  vackert!  That  is  beautiful. 
(How  beautiful!)  Further  examples  are:  Det  var  tit- 
markt!  That  is  fine.  Det  var  en  vacker  blomma!  What 
a  pretty  flower.  Det  var  en  otack  dimma,  det  har!  What 
a  nasty  fog  this  is.  Det  var  ledsamt,  att  du  skall  resa! 
I  am  sorry  you  are  going.  Det  var  roligt,  att  du  kan 
komma!  I  am  glad  you  can  come.  Det  var  da  besyn'- 
nerligt,  att  jag  inte  kan  finna  boken!  It  is  strange  that  I 
can't  find  the  book.  Det  var  roligt  att  gora  er  bekan't- 
skap!  I  am  glad  to  make  your  acquaintance. 

245.  PROGRESSIVE.  Swedish  does  not,  like  English, 
have  a  special  way  of  expressing  the  progressive  idea 
(see  §  47).  But  when  the  idea  of  continued  action 
is  very  prominent,  Swedish  uses  halla  pa  or  halla  p& 
med  be  engaged  in,  be  occupied  with,  with  att  and 
the  infinitive  of  durative1  verbs.  Ex.:  Han  haller  pa 
(med}  att  ata.  He  is  just  eating.  Han  holl  pa  att  mala 
huset.  He  was  engaged  in  painting  the  house.  Han 
haller  pa  att  raka  sig.  He  is  just  shaving. 

Note.  —  i.  When  emplo}*ed  with  point-action2  verbs,  halla  pa 
means  "be  near",  and  the  idea  is  not  progressive;  in  this  use  halla 
pA  med  does  not  occur.  Ex.:  Gossen  haller  pa  att  drunkna.  The 
boy  is  near  drowning.  Jag  holl  pa  att  glomma  det.  I  was  near 
forgetting  it.  Han  holl  pa  att  bryta  av  sig  benet.  He  was  near 
breaking  his  leg.  Jag  holl  pA  att  tappa  klockan,  I  was  near 
dropping  the  watch. 

•2.  To  emphasize  the  progressive  idea  Swedish  sometimes  places 
before  a  verb  another  durative  verb  such  as  sitta,  std,  ligga, 

1  Durative  (or  progressive-action)  verbs  are  such  as  represent  an  act  or 
condition  as  simply  progressing,  without  thought  of  any  temporal  limita- 
tion; that  is,  it  may  go  on  indefinitely;  the  mind's  eye  follows  the  progress 
of  the  act.   Durative  verbs  are  to  a  great  extent  identical  with  cursive  verbs 
(see  page  81,  foot-note  2). 

2  Point-action  (or  congressive-action)  verbs  are  such  as  represent  an  act 
"with  temporal  limitations,  thought  of  simply  as  an  occurrence;  the  progress 
of  the  act  is  not  before  the  mind's  eye,  but  the  entire  act  is  viewed  as  a  whole 
and  reduced,  as  it  were,  to  a  point  in   the   mind's   eye.     Point-action   verbs 
are  to  a  great  extent  identical  with  terminative  verbs  (seep.  81, foot-note2). 


XX  PARTICIPLES,  INFINITIVE,  IMPERATIVE  189 

ga ,  connecting  the  two  verbs  with  och.  Ex.:  Han  ligger  ccJi 
sovcr.  He  is  sleeping.  Jag  salt  och  skrev,  dd  du  kom.  I  was  writing 
when  you  came.  Nu  st&r  du  och  pratar  dumheter.  Now  you  are 
talking  nonsense.  V ad  sitter  du  och  tanker  pdf  What  are  you 
thinking  of?  Han  gar  och  tigger.  He  is  begging. 

In  the  spoken  language  also  hdlla  pd  may  be  so  used.  Ex.: 
Han  haller  pa  och  ater.  He  is  eating. 

240.  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  The  present  participle  is  less 
used  in  the  spoken  than  in  the  written  language,  espe- 
cially in  the  construction  mentioned  in  §  239,  2.  The 
spoken  language  prefers  hon  gick  och  tiggde  to  hon  gick 
tiggande. 

The  past  participle  is  on  the  whole  less  employed  in 
the  spoken  than  in  the  written  language,  except  in  the 
use  mentioned  in  §  223,  note,  and  in  the  auxiliary- 
passive,  which  is  in  the  spoken  language  usually  em- 
ployed in  place  of  the  ^-passive. 

(2)  The  infinitive  in  indirect  statement  is  not  used  in 
the  spoken  language,  which  employs  instead  an  indicative 
clause  introduced  by  att  that,  which  may  be  omitted,  as 
in    English  (cf.  page  43,  foot-note    3).      Ex.:   Jag   tror, 
(a//)  jag  har  ratt   (for  Jag  tror  mig  'hava  ratf).     I  be- 
lieve (that)  I  am  right. 

(3)  The  polite   colloquial   language    (largely    also   the 
written  language)   tends  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  impera- 
tive.    Primarily  in  the  spoken  language,   various  expres- 
sions are  used  with  the  imperative  to  make  it  sound  less 
harsh  when  a  stern  or  harsh  effect  is  not  desired.    Ex.: 
Gor  del,  sd  dr  du  snail.     Please  do  that.     Also,    om  jag 

far  be  if  I  may  ask,  is  so  used.  Note  also:  Var  sd  god 
och  gbr  det.  Var  snail  och  gor  det.  A  question  may  take 
the  place  of  the  imperative.  Ex.:  Vill  ni  vara  sd  god 
och  gbra  det? 


190  PARTICIPLES,  INFINITIVE,  IMPERATIVE  XX 

(4)  The  use  of   the  past    for   the  present  (see  §  244) 
belongs  primarily  to  the  spoken  language. 

(5)  On   the  colloquial  use  of    h&ller  p&  och  see  §  245, 
note  2,  end. 

EXERCISE   XX. 

Violanta  was  a  strong  and  powerful  girl  who  worked 
cheerfully1,  and  all  liked  her.  On  Saturday  evenings 
when  the  work  of  the  week  was  finished  and  the  wheels 
stopped,  the  people  got  permission  to  dance  on  the  meadow 
above  the  fall.  The  miller's  servant  played  the  fiddle. 
He  played  faster  and  faster,  to  see  how  lightly  Violanta 
could  whirl  about  and  how  high  she  could  jump,  and 
then  he  laughed  and  said:  "I  believe  you  are  swifter 
than  the  mill-wheels  themselves." 

When  Christmas  came,  all  the  people  got  their  pay 
and  in  addition  a  Christmas  present.  Violanta  got  a 
pair  of  new  shoes  and  also  the  dress-goods  which  the 
miller  had  promised  her. 

[During]  the  entire  Christmas  period  things  were 
lively2  in  the  mill.  There  were  visits3  from  other  mills, 
and  all  the  boys  that  came  were  anxious  to*  dance  with 
Violanta.  She  was  so  young  and  beautiful,  and  could 
dance  like  a  whirlwind.  The  miller's  servant  had  to 
bring  out5  the  fiddle  all  the  time6,  but  while  he  played, 
his  eyes  followed  Violanta,  and  every  time  she  went  past 
him,  he  sent  a  friendly  word  after  her. 

Then  it  happened  one  evening  when  Violanta  was 
dancing,  that  her  braid  fell  down.  She  ran  aside7  to 
braid  it  again,  but  when  she  came  past  the  miller's  serv- 

1  Cheerfully  med  liv  och  lust.  5  Had  to  brine  out  maste  fram  med. 

2  Gick  det  muntert  till.  6  All  the  time  standigt. 

3  Det  kom  beso'k.  7  Aside  sin  vag. 

4  Villegarna. 


XX  PARTICIPLES,  INFINITIVE,  IMPERATIVE  19 1 

ant,  he  cried  out:  "Well1,  look  at  the  wild  waves  of 
the  sea." — "What  do  you  mean  by2  that?"  asked  Vio- 
lanta  and  stopped. — "I  mean  only  that  your  locks  are 
fluttering  and  rolling  like  the  waves  of  the  sea,"  he 
said.  But  his  words  reminded  Violanta  of  something  that 
she  had  forgotten,  and  after  that  evening  she  was  not 
as  before.  She  went  to  her  work  more  quietly,  and  no 
longer  danced  with  the  same  joy8. 

When  spring  came,  Violanta  often  went  to  the  meadow 
above  the  fall  and  sat  down  on  the  little  bench  under 
the  large  blooming  bird-cherry  trees.  *  While  she  sat  there 
alone  one  evening,  the  miller's  servant  came  walking 
and  asked  that  he  might4  sit  beside  her  on  the  bench. 

1  Nej.  3   Med  samma  lust. 

2  Med.  4,  Asked  that  he  mieht  bad  att  fa. 


1 92  AUXILIARIES 

LESSON  XXI. 
AUXILIARIES. 

247.  Several  Swedish  auxiliaries  have  somewhat   more 
complete  forms  than  those  of  English,  particularly  in  the 
perfect    system.    The    difficulty   is    thus  in  a  number  of 
instances  due  to  the  English  rather  than  the  Swedish  idi- 
om.    Most  of  the    auxiliaries    (all    that   are  not  strong) 
have  a  past  tense  belonging  to  the  Second   Weak   Con- 
jugation1   (see  §    194,    5).     Their   inflection  is   more  or 
less    irregular.     In    several    instances,    moreover,    forms 
that  have   endings   characteristic   of   the   past    tense   are 
used  with  present  meaning. 

248.  Ha(va)  (for  conjugation  see  §  194,  5,  and  §  195, 
note  i)  is  in  the  simple  tenses  used  with  the  supine   of 
all  verbs  to  form  the  tenses  of  the  per  feet  system.  See  §  181. 

Note.  — As  an  independent  verb,  hava  means  "have",. "possess"; 
in  this  case  it  has  also  a  present  perfect  tense,  etc.;  a.s,jag  har  haft. 

249-  Vara  (see  §  200)  may  be  used  with  the  past 
participle  of  transitive  cursive  verbs  to  form  the  auxil- 
iary-passive. See  §  222. 

Note.  —  i.  Vara  is  also  employed  as  an  independent  verb, 
meaning  "be".  Note  especially  its  use  with  the  past  participle  of 
terminative  verbs,  both  transitive  (see  §  223,  note)  and  intransitive 
(see  §  241,  note). 

2.  There  is  also  a  verb  vara,  conjugated  according  to  the  First 
Weak  Conjugation,  meaning  "last".  Ex.:  Stormen  varade  i  fern 
dagar.  The  storm  lasted  five  days.  Sd  lange  det  varar  as  long 
as  it  lasts.  Det  varade  ej  lange,  innan  jag  m&rkle  delta.  It  was 
not  long  before  I  noticed  this. 

250.  Bli(va)  (see  §§  138;  201,  i)  is  employed  with  the 
past  participle  of  transitive  verbs,  to  form  the  auxiliary- 
passive.  See  §  222. 

1  One,  far,  has  no  past  tense.— Ma,  maste.  far  and  tor  have  no  infinitive. 


XXI  AUXILIARIES  193 

Xote.  —  i.  The  forms  of  bliva  may  be  united  with  the  present 
participle  of  some  verbs  of  position;  as,  bliva  liggande  fall  pros- 
trate, come  to  lie  (there),  remain  (lying  there);  bliva  sittande  get 
stuck,  stick,  remain  seated,  keep  one's  seat;  bliva  stdende  stop, 
come  to  a  stand,  remain  standing. 

2.  As  an  independent  verb,  bliva  means  "become",  "remain". 
Ex.:  Han  blir  nog  frisk.  He  will  get  well,  no  doubt.  Han  blev 
strax  and.  He  at  once  became  angry.  Bliv  ddr  du  dr.  Stay 
where  you  are.  Hum  lange  blir  du  har?  How  long  are  you 
going  to  stay  here?  —  Note  especially  the  expression  Idta  bli,  used 
with  att  and  the  infinitive,  or  independently  of  an  infinitive,  mean- 
ing "cease",  "leave  off".  Ex.:  Ldt  bli!  Don't.  Ldt  bit  det  dar! 
Stop  that.  Ldt  bli  mig!  Let  me  alone.  Ldt  bli  att  tala!  Stop 
talking.  Don't  talk. 

251.  Varda  (see  page  139,  foot-note  i)  may  be  employed 
in  the  past  sing.,  in  place  of  bliva t  with  the  past  participle 
of  transitive  verbs,  to  form  the  auxiliary-passive.  See 

§    222. 

Note.  —  Varda  (in  the  past  singular)  may  be  used  as  an  inde- 
pendent verb,  and  is  in  this  case  also  limited  to  certain  localities 
(cf.  §  228,  5).  Ex.:  Han  vart  and.  He  became  angry. 

"2.") '2.  Skola,  pres.  skall,  skola;  past  skulle1;  supine  skola  f. 
It  denotes: 

i.  Futurity.  The  present  of  skola  is  sometimes  used 
with  the  present  and  perfect  infinitive  of  verbs,  to  form 
the  future  and  future  perfect  tenses;  see  §§  136,  2;  185, 
note  i,  and  page  120,  foot-note  3.  The  past  of  skola 
followed  by  the  present  infinitive  frequently  denotes  time 
as  future  to  a  definite  time  in  the  past.3  Ex.:  Vi skulle 
just  ga  till  bords,  da  du  kom.  We  were  just  going  to 
sit  down  to  table  when  you  came.  Han  sade,  att  han 
skulle  rcsa  som  i  dag.  He  said  that  he  was  going  to 
leave  to-day. 


1  Cf.  §194.,  5. 

2  Of  infrequent  occurrence. 

3  Such  past  future  time  may  be  past,   present  or  future  to  present  time. 


194  AUXILIARIES 

2.  In  the  principal  clause  of  an  unreal  conditional  sen- 
tence, skulk  followed  by  the   infinitive   may   be   used    in 
place  of   the   past  ^-subjunctive.     See  §2 15.    In  this  and 
the  following  uses,  skulle  does  not  refer  to  past  time. 

3.  Volition.    Ex.:    Vad skalljag gora  f  What  shall  I  do? 
fag  skall  ha  del,  trots  honom.     I   will  have  it  in  spite  of 
him.     Han   skall,  anting  en    han  mil  eller  inte.     He  shall, 
whether    he    wants    to    or    not.    Jag  shall  aldrig  gora  sa 
mer.     I  will  never  again  do  that.     Du  skall  icke   driipa! 
Thou  shalt  not  kill.     Aven  om  han  ber  mig  pa  sina  bara 
knan,  sa  shall  han  straffas.     Even    if    he  asks  me   on  his 
bare  knees,  he  shall  be  punished. 

4.  Duty,  obligation:    Du  skall  vara  radd  om  din  halsa. 
You  ought  to  take  good  care  of  your  health.    Det  skulle 
du   inte   ha  gjort.     You  should  not  have  done  that.     Ni 
skulle  ha  svarat  honom,  att  .    .    .  You  should  have  answered 
him   that  .    .    .     Man  skulle  straffa   honom.     He  ought  to 
be  punished. 

5.  Reputation,  general  opinion:     Hon  skall  vara  mycket 
rik.     She   is   supposed    to    be   very    wealthy.     Han  skall 
hava    rest   till   Ame'rika.     He    is   said    to  have  gone  to 
America. 

Note.  —  i.  The  past  perfect  of  skola  is  hade  skolat.  But  Swedish 
idiom  prefers  skulle  ha  (vantat)  (cf.  English)  to  hade  skolat 
(vanta}  should  have  (waited). 

2.  Skola  may  also  be  used  independently  of  an  infinitive,  par- 
ticularly in  the  spoken  language;  the  omitted  infinitive  in  most 
cases  expresses  motion,  and  there  is  an  adverb  or  an  adverbial 
phrase  to  show  its  direction  or  end.  Ex.:  Jag  shall  hem.  I  shall 
go  home.  Jag  skall  till  stadcn  i  morgon.  I  shall  go  to  town 
to-morrow.  Vart  skall  du  han?  Where  are  you  going?  Vad 

shall  du  med  den  dar  bokenf    What  do  you  want  that  book   for? 

Vad  skulle  han  dar?  What  business  had  he  there?  Jag  skall 
upp  klockan  fyra  i  morgon  bittida.  I  shall  get  up  at  four  o'clock 
to-morrow  morning.  Fram  skall  jag.  I'm  going  to  get  there. 


XXI  AUXILIARIES  195 

253.  Ma,  matte1  (does  not  refer  to  past  time): 

1.  Ma  and  matte  are  used  to  express  a  wish,  in  place 
of  the  ^-subjunctive.     See  §§  209;  214,  i. 

2.  Ma  (not  matte}  is  used  to  express  concession2.     Ex.: 
Det  ma  sd    vara.     It    may    very   well    be.     Du   ma  gbra 
som   du    vill.     You  may  do  as  you  please.     Nu  md  fien- 
derna  gdrna  komma.    Now  the  enemy  may  come. 

3.  Matte  (not  ma}  may  express  likelihood,  supposition: 
Det  matte  vara  hemskt.     It  must  be  grewsome.    Nu  matte 
han  val  vara  framme.    He  must  be   there  by  this  time,  I 
should  think.    Det  matte  val  ej  vara  mojligt.    It  can't  be 
possible,  can  it?    Den  dar  karlen  matte  vara  stark.    That 
fellow  must  be  strong.     Hon  matte  vara  sjuk.     She  must 
be  sick.    Det  har  bldcket  matte  vara  daligt.    This  must  be 
poor  ink. 

Note.  —  There  is  another  verb  md  (pres.  mar,  md;  past  mddde; 
supine  mdtt),  belonging  to  the  Third  Weak  Conjugation,  which 
means  "do",  "feel".  Ex.:  Hur  mar  du?  How  are  you? 

254.  Kunna  (see  §§  138;  194,  5)  denotes: 

1.  Ability.     Ex.:    Jag  kan  icke  finna  boken.     I  cannot 
find    the  book.    Jag  kunde  icke  komma  i  gar.    I  couldn't 
come   yesterday.      Du    kunde    nog    komma,    om    du   ville. 
You  could  no  doubt  come  if  you  wanted  to.    Jag  har  ej 
kunnat  hora  ett  ord.     I    have    not    been    able    to   hear   a 
word.     Denna  lista  hade  latt  kunnat  goras   langre.     This 
list  could  easily  have  been  made  longer. 

2.  Possibility:    Jag  kan  misstaga  mig.    I  may    be    mis- 
taken.   Det  kan  vara  sant.    It  may  be  true.     Sadant  kan 
hdnda.    Such  things  will  happen.    Jag  kunde  just  tro  del. 
I  might  have  known  that. 

3.  Permission:    Nn  kan  du  ga.    Now  you  may  go. 

1  Cf.  §  194-,  5. 

2  Rarely,  the  ^-subjunctive  is  so  employed  in  the  present  tense. 


196  AUXILIARIES  XXI 

4.  Habit,  repeated  action:  Har  kan  vara  mycket  varmt. 
It  is  sometimes  very  warm  here.  Han  kunde  sitta  i  timtal 
och  skriva.  He  would  sit  writing  by  the  hour. 

Note.  —  i.  The  past  perfect  of  kunna  is  hade  kunnat.  But 
Swedish  idiom  prefers  kunde  ha  (vantat]  (cf.  English)  to  hade 
kunnat  (vanta).  Ex.:  Jag  kunde  ha  gjort  (or  hade  kunnat  gora) 
det,  men  jag  ville  inte.  I  could  have  done  it,  but  I  didn't  want  to. 

2.  Kunna  may  also  be  used  without  a  following  infinitive 
(="know").  Ex.:  Kan  du  d in  laxa  ?  Do  you  know1  your  lesson? 
Han  kan  engelska.  He  knows  English. 

255.  Vilja  (see  §§  137;    194,  5)  denotes: 

1.  Volition.     Ex.:    Jag  vill  ga.    I  want  to  go.    Jag  bad 
honom  komma,  men  han  ville  inte.     I  asked  him  to  come, 
but  he  didn't  want  to.     Han  mile,  att  jag    skulle    vanta. 
He  wanted  me  to  wait.     Gbr  som  du  mil.     Do  as  you  wish. 
Hur  mycket  vill  du  ha  f    How  much  do  you  want  ?     Vad 
mil   du,    att  han  skall  gora  ?     What  do  you  want  him  to 
do?     Vill  du  vara  sa^god  och  hjalpa  mig?    Please  help  me. 
Min  klocka  mil  inte  ga.     My  watch  won't  run.      Veden  vill 
inte  brinna.  The  wood  won't  burn.    Det  vill  saga  that  is. 

2.  Modest  statement:   Jag  ville  heist  traffa  honom  i  dag. 
I  should  prefer  to  see  him  to-day.    Du  ville  vdl  inte  vara 
snail  och  be  honom  komma  f     Would  you   kindly  ask   him 
to  come? 

Note.  —  Vilja  is  frequently  used  independently  of  an  infinitive, 
particularly  in  the  spoken  language;  cf.  §  252,  note  2.  Ex.:  Det 
vill  jag  inte.  I  don't  want  to  (do  it).  Jag  vill  dig  vdl.  I  wish 
you  well.  Vad  vill  du  mig?  What  do  you  want  with  me?  Hunden 
vill  in.  The  dog  wants  to  get  in.  Vart  vill  ni?  Where  do  you 
want  to  go?  Vill  du  medf  Do  you  want  to  go  along? 

256.  Maste2,  supine  mast.    Maste  refers  to  past  as  well 
as  to  present  and  future  time.     Ex.:    Nu  mas te  jag  ga. 
Now  I  must  go.     Du  mdste  komma  genast.     You'll  have 

1  Other   words   meaning   "know",  but   not   usable   here,  are  vetci.  kiinna. 

2  Cf.  §  194-,  5. 


XXI  AUXILIARIES  197 

to  come  at  once.  Jag  kunde  ej  komma,  ty  jag  mastc 
skriva  brev.  I  couldn't  come,  for  I  had  to  write  some 
letters.  Jag  hade  mast  vanta,  om  jag  velat  traffa  honom. 
I  should  have  been  obliged  to  wait  if  I  had  wanted  to 
see  him. 

Note.  —  i.  For  the  missing  infinitive,  other  verbs  must  be  em- 
ployed, as  nodgas,  vara  tvungen. 

2.  On  fd  lov  alt  see  §  262,  2  end. 

3.  Mdste  is  sometimes  used  without  a  dependent  infinitive,    par- 
ticularly in  the  spoken  language;  cf.  §§  252,  note  2;  255,  note.  Ex.: 
Jag  m&ste  hem.     I  must  go  home. 

257.  Lar,  plur.  lara,  expresses   relatively  certain  like- 
lihood or  probability,  generally  such  as  is  based  on  report. 
Ex.:    Han  lar  vara  hemkommen.    People  say  that  he   has 
returned.      Vi  lara  fa  krig.    They  say  that  we  are  going 
to   have    war.    Jag  lar  aldrig  mera  frterse  honom.     I  am 
not  likely  to  see  him  again.     Han  lar  vara  sjuk.     He  is 
reported    to    be   sick.     Du    lar  ha   sagt   detta.     You    are 
reported  to  have  said  this. 

258.  Tor,  plur.  tora,-    past  torde1.     Both  tor  and  torde 
refer    to  present    time;  tor  is  less  frequently  used,    being 
somewhat  archaic.     Also  this  word  denotes  likelihood  or 
probability    (a   lesser   degree   than    that  denoted  by/ar). 
Ex.:     Han    tor    komma    snart.       He    will  perhaps   come 
soon.    Det  torde  icke  vara  omojligt.    I  dare   say   it    would 
not   be  impossible.     Ni  tor  veta,  vad  jag  menar.     I  dare 
say  you  know  what  I  mean.  Som  man  torde  erinra  sig  as 
will    probably   be    remembered.     Denna    asikt   torde   vara 
ratt  alhnan.     This  view  is  no  doubt  pretty  general.    Ytter- 
ligare  exem'pel  torde  vara  overflodiga.     Further  examples 
are  hardly  necessary. 

Note.  —  This  idea    is   very    often  expressed  by  adverbs;  as,  nog, 
allt,  visst. 

1    See  §  194,  2  and  5,  and  page  130,  foot-note  3. 


198  AUXILIARIES  XXI 

259-  Bora,  pres.  bor,  bora;  past  borde1;  supine  bort. 
Borde  almost  always2  denotes  the  same  kind  of  time 
as  bor.  This  word  denotes: 

1.  Duty,  propriety.  Ex.:  Du  borde  skammas.  You  ought 
to    be   ashamed.     Man    bor  halla    sitt   lofte.     One    should 
keep  one's  promise.    Han  borde  ing  en  mat  fa.     He  ought 
not  to  have  any  food.    Bor  jag  gbra  del?    Ought  I  to  do 
that?    Det  hade  i  sa  fall  bort  uttryckligen  sagas  if  ran.     It 
ought  in  that  case  to  have  been  expressly  stated. 

2.  Expectation,  calculation:     Taget  bor  vara  har  om  fyra 
minu'fer.    The  train  should  be  here  in  four  minutes.    A 
little    later:     Nu   borde   del  vara    har.     Now  it  ought  to, 
be  here. 

Note.  —  The  past  perfect  of  bora  is  hade  bort,  but  Swedish 
idiom  prefers  borde  ha  (vantat)  (cf.  English)  to  hade  bort  ( vanta ). 
Ex.:  Han  borde  ha  gjort  (or  hade  bort  gora}  del.  He  ought  to 
have  done  it.  Delta  borde  dttnin' stone  ha  omnamnts.  This  ought 
at  least  to  have  been  mentioned. 

260.  Lata  (see  §  200)  is  used  to  express: 

1.  The    first   person    plural   of   the    imperative    in    the 
form  lat  (or  latoni)  with  the  infinitive.     See  §  243. 

2.  Permission  and  concession:    Jag  lat   honom    ej  gora 
det.    I  didn't  let  him  do  it.    Lat   honom   sova.     Let    him 
sleep.    Lat  det  vara.     Let  the  matter  rest.     Never  mind. 
Lat    sa    vara.      Granted.    Very  well.    Lat  vara,  att .  .    . 
What  though  .    .    .     Cf.  lata  bit;   see  §  250,  note  2  end. 

3.  "Cause  some  one  to  do  a  thing."     Ex.:  Jag  har  latit 
dig   vanta.      I    have    kept  you  waiting.    Jag  har  latit  sy 
mig  en  rock.    I  have  had  a  coat  made.    Jag  Hit  laga  roc- 
ken.    I  had  my  coat  mended. 

1  See  §  194,  2  and  5,  and  page  130,  foot-note  3. 

2  Except  sometimes  in  subordinate  clauses. 


XXI  AUXILIARIES  199 

Note.  —  There  is  another  verb  Idta  conjugated  in  the  same  way, 
meaning  "sound". 

261.  Komma  (see  §  200)  expresses: 

1.  Futurity,  with  att  and  the  infinitive.    See  §  136,   i. 

2.  "Happen  to",  almost  exclusively  in  the  past  tense. 
Ex.:  Han  kom  att  ga  forbi' .     He    happened    to   pass    by. 
Jag  kom  att  rora  vid  karaffi'nen,  och  sa  foil  den  i  golvet. 
I  happened    to    touch   the    water-bottle,    and    (then)    it 
fell  to  the  floor. 

3.  "Cause  some  one  to  do  a  thing."      Ex.:    Han    kom 
mig  att  tro  den  dar  histo'rien.     He  got  me  to  believe  that 
story.     Lejonets  rytande  kom    askadarna    att   darra.     The 
roaring  of  the  lion  caused  the  spectators  to  shudder. 

Note.  —  As  an  independent  verb,  komma  means  "come". 

262.  Fa  (see  §  203,   i)  expresses: 

1.  Permission.    Ex.:  Far  jag  ga?    May  I  go?   Far  man 
rbka  hdrf    Is  smoking  permitted   here?     (Lit.:    May  one 
smoke  here?)    Det  far  du  icke.    No,  you  must  not.  Inga 
oforskamdheter,  om  jag  far  be.     No  insolence,  please. 

2.  Necessity:    Du  far  stanna  hemma.    You  will  have  to 
stay   at   home.     Man  far  t&la  mycket  har  i  varlden.     One 
has  to  put  up  with  a  great  deal  in  this  life.      Som  gosse 
fick  han  ofta  svalta.    As  a  boy  he  often  had  to  go    with- 
out food.     Han  kommer  att  fa  vanta.     He    will    have    to 
wait.      Om  du  ej  hade  haft  intradesbiljett,  hade  du  fatt  stan- 
na utanfor.     If  you  hadn't  had  a  ticket,  you  would  have 
had  to  stay  outside.    Jag  hade  rivit  sbnder  min  nya  rock; 
jag  fick  ga  nt  i  den  gamla.     I  had  torn  my  new  coat;    I 
had  to  wear  the  old  one.  —  Frequently  fa  lov  att1  is  used 
with  the   same  meaning. 

1   Fa  lav  may  also,  especially  in  questions,  mean  "get  permission".     Ex.: 
F&rjae  lw  ?    May  I  ?     Om  jag  far  l<rv  if  I  may. 


200  AUXILIARIES  XXI 

3.  With    the   infinitive    of    the    verbs   hora,  se,  vcta    it 
denotes  the  beginning  of  the  action  of  these  verbs.    Ex.: 
Jag  fick  veta  det  i  gar.    I  learned  of  it  yesterday.     Vi  fa 
se.    We  shall  see.    Sd  snart  jag  far  se  honom.    As  soon  as 
I  see  (catch  sight  of)  him. 

4.  "Get    some   one  to    do    a    thing."      Ex.:    Jag  fick 
honom  inte  att  saga  ett  ord.     I  couldn't  get  him  to  say  a 
word. 

Note.  —  As  an  independent  verb,  fd  means  "get",  "receive", 
"obtain". 

263.  COLLOQUIALISMS.  After  the  supine  of  modal  aux- 
iliaries (sometimes  also  of  other  verbs)  the  spoken  lan- 
guage frequently  employs  another  supine  in  place  of  the 
normal  infinitive.  Ex.:  Jag  har  inte  kunnat  hbrt  (for 
hora)  ett  ord.  I  have  not  been  able  to  hear  a  word.  Jag 
hade  bort  sagt  (for  saga)  det  foru't.  I  ought  to  have  said 
it  before.  Flickan  hade  fatt  salt  (for  s'dlja*}  sina  tdndstickor. 
The  girl  had  succeeded  in  getting  her  matches  sold.  Om 
jag  bara  hade  kunnat  sluppit  (for  slippa)  ifra'n  det  har. 
I  wish  I  could  have  gotten  out  of  this. 

EXERCISE  XXI. 

At  first  he  sat  there  for  a  long  time  and  was  silent, 
as  if  it  were  hard  for  him  to  utter  that  which1  he 
wanted  to  say,  but  at  last  it  came.  He  then  asked  Vio- 
lanta  humbly  whether  she  would  not  be  able  to  love 
him  a  little,  and  become  his  wife. 

If  Violanta  promised  to  become  his  wife,  he  would  prom- 
ise to  make  her  whole  life  as  happy  as  a  dance.  "Why, 
we  two  are2  as  [if]  made3  for  each  other,"  he  said.  Vio- 
lanta seemed  surprised,  almost  a  bit  frightened.  She  had 
never  thought  that  she  and  the  miller's  servant  were  as 

1    Som  om  han  hade  svart  att  2   Vi  tva  aro  ju  .  .  . 

komma  fram  med,  vad  ...  3    Use  a  form  of  "skapa"  (i). 


XXI  AUXILIARIES  2OI 

[if]  made  for  each  other.  But  when  she  looked  at  his 
face  and  saw  how  sincerely  he  meant  it,  she  asked  him 
to  come  early  the  next  morning1  to  the  same  place,  and2 
she  would  give  him  her  answer.  And  with  that  he  would 
have  to  be  satisfied.3 

Early  the  next  morning  before  the  sun  was  up,  Vio- 
lanta  went  down  to  the  meadow  by  the  river.  She  bent 
down  over  the  waves  so  that  the  foam  blew  into  her 
face4.  "Whither  are  you  hurrying  away?"  she  whispered. 
"Whither  are  you  hurrying  away?" — "To  the  wild  waves 
of  the  sea.  To  the  wild  waves  of  the  sea,"  answered 
the  river  and  rushed  on. — "Oh,  yes,"  said  Violanta  aloud 
and  spread  out  her  arms.  "I  too  am  going  there." 

And  then  she  tied  her  kerchief  about  her  hair  and 
began  to  run  a  >  fast  as  she  could  along  the  narrow  path 
which  led  through  the  pastures  along  the  river. 

When  the  sun  rose,  the  miller's  servant  rose  also,  and 
went  down  to  the  meadow  by  the  fall.  Not  finding  Vio- 
lanta there,5  he  smiled  and  thought:  "She'll  come,  all 
right0.  The  sun  has  just  risen."  He  sat  there  until  the 
noonday  sun  glowed  on  the  water,  and  when  she  still  was 
not  to  be  seen7,  he  sighed  and  thought:  "She  will  come, 
no  doubt6.  The  sun  has  not  yet  set."  But  when  the 
sun  at  last  set,  he  wept  and  thought:  "She  will  never 
come."  And  she  never  came. 


1  Nasta  morgon.  5   Use  a  clause  -with  a  finite  form  of 

2  Sa.  the   -verb;  see  §  239,  note  1. 

3  Och  darmed  mAste  ban  lAta  6    Nog. 

sig  noja.  7    IVas  not  to  be  seen  icke  syntes  till. 

4  Into  her  face  henne  i  ansiktet. 


202  PERSONAL  AND  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS  XXII 


LESSON    XXII. 

PERSONAL,,  POSSESSIVE  AND  DEMONSTRATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 

264.   PERSONAL   AND   POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS.      These 
have  the  following  forms: 


NOM. 

fag 

du 
ni 
han 
hon 
den,  det 
vi 
I,   ni 
ja 

OBJ. 
mig 
dig 
er 
honom 
henne 
=  Nom. 

OSS 

eder,  er 

GEN. 

POSSESSIVE 
min,  mitt,   mina 
din,  ditt,  dina 
er,  ert,  era;  (eder,  edert,  cdra 

hans 
hennes 
dess 

vdr,  vart,   vdra 
eder,  edert,  edra;  er,  ert,  era 

The   special    reflexive   for    the    third    person,    singular 
and  plural,  is: 

sig  -         sin,  sitt,  sina 

Note  —  i.  On  the  use  of  these  pronouns  see  §§  32,  note;  35;  36; 
49;  61;  62;  186  ff.;  cf.  §  127. 

2.  The  neuter  det  may  be  used    to   represent   any   word   or   ex- 
pression.    Ex.:  Pojken  hade  fallit  i  vattnet,  men  han  tordes   inte 
tala  om  det.     The  boy  had  fallen   into    the  water,    but  he   didn't 
dare  tell  it.     Det  ar  farligt  att  profete'ra,  och  jag  vagar  det  inte. 
It  is  dangerous  to  prophesy,  and  I  don't  dare  do  it.    Han  ar  ingen 

forfat'tare,  men  han  onskar  bli  det.  He  is  not  an  author,  but  he 
wants  to  be  one.  Om  nagon  kanner  sig  sjuk,  ar  han  det  natu'r- 
ligtvis.  If  anyone  feels  sick,  he  is  sick,  of  course. 

3.  In   constructions  for  emphasis  with  det  ar,  det  var,  followed 
by  a  personal  pronoun   and  a  relative  clause,  the  personal  pronoun 
is  put  in  the  objective  case  by  attraction,  if  the  following  relative 
is  the  object,   that   is,  if   the  personal  pronoun  in   the  unemphatic 
construction  would  be  the  object;  the   relative  pronoun   is  usually 


XXII         PERSONAL  AND  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS  203 

omitted.  Ex.:  Dct  ar  dig,  han  vill  traffa.1  (Cf.  Han  vill  traffa 
dig.)  You  are  the  one  he  wants  to  see.  Det  ar  dig,  han  ar  ond 
pd.1  You  are  the  one  he  is  angry  at.  Det  ar  oss,  han  talar  om.1 
He  is  talking  about  us.  Det  var  henne,  jag  sdg  i  g&r.  She  is 
the  one  I  saw  yesterday. 

4.  On  the  use  of  adverbial  compounds  in  place  of  personal  pro- 
nouns depending  upon  a  preposition,  see  §  172,  i,  note  2. 

5.  In  the  second   person,  a  genitive  E(de)rs  occurs   with  a  few 
titles;  as,  E(de)rs  majest&'t  Your  Majesty,  E(de}rs  ndd  Your  Grace. 

6.  Particularly   before  derogatory  words,   Swedish  generally  uses 
a  possessive  pronoun  of  the  second  person  (rarely  one  of   the   first 
person),  in  cases  where  English  employs  the  personal  pronoun;  as, 
din  lymmel  you  rascal,  era  bytingar  you  urchins,  era  stackare  you 
wretches,  ditt  dumhuvud  you  blockhead. 

7.  The  plural  form  of  the  possessive  pronouns2   used  without  a 
following  noun  may   be  preceded   by    the    prepositive   definite  arti- 
cle;  these  expressions  embrace  the  members  of  the  family,  relatives, 
and    persons,  of    one's    immediate    surroundings:   de   mina,  de  di- 
na,  de  vara,  de  sina;  gen.  dc  minas,  etc.     But  de  e(d)ra  cannot 
be  so  used.     Ex.:  Hur  star  det  till  med  de  dina?    How  are  your 
people?    Det  var  hemskt  att  sitta  ensam  i  sena  kvallen  for  hen- 
ne,  som  nyss  hade  dromt  sig  omgiven  av   alia  de  sina.     It   was 
grewsome  to  sit  alone  in  the  late    evening   for   her   who   had    just 
dreamt  herself  surrounded  by  all  her  kindred. 

8.  The  pronoun   varan' dra   each    other,    one    another,    is    used 
with  the  plural  verb-forms  of  transitive  verbs  to  express  the  recip- 
rocal idea.3     Varan'dra  is  used  either   of   two  or  more    than    two. 
In  the  genitive  it  adds  -s.      Ex. :     De    alskade    varan'dra.      They 
loved   each   other.      Vi  fa    hjiilpa    varan'dra.      We    shall  have    to 
help  each   other.     /  likncn   varan'dra.    You  resemble  each  other. 

9.  On  the  use  of  sjalv  see  §  187,  note,  and  §  149,  note.    Sjalv 
may  omit  t  in  the  neuter,  particularly  in    certain    phrases;   as,    av 
sig  sjalv,  for  sig  sjalv.     Ex.:  Barnet  gdr  det  av  sig  sj&lv.    The 
child  does  it  of  its  own  accord. 

1  Cf.    Det  ar  du,  som  vill  triiffa  honom.     Det  ar  du,  som    iir    ond   fa    honom. 
Det  dr  ri.   som  tala  out  honom. 

2  The  genitives  of  the  personal  pronouns  of  the  third    person   cannot   he 
so  used. 

3  In   a   number  of  verbs,    Swedish   employs  the  ending  -s  to  express  the 
reciprocal  idea;  see  §  225,  note  1. 


204  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  XXII 

DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

265.  GENERAL  RULE.    Adjective  pronouns,   like  adjec- 
tives, are  not  inflected  in  regard  to  case,  but  substantive 
pronouns  have  a  genitive  ending  in  -s.   Pronouns  that  can 
be  used  either  substantively  or  adjectively  may  have  the 
genitive  when  used  as  nouns   but  not  when  employed  as 
adjectives.    This  rule  applies  to  all  the  classes  of  pronouns 
treated  in  the  following  pages  (demonstrative,  relative,  in- 
terrogative, indefinite).     Observe  also  the  objective  plural 
form  dem  of  the  demonstrative,  used  only  substantively. 

266.  The   demonstratives    are    denna  this,    this     one1, 
den    that,    that   one,    den    hd'r   this  (one),  den  da'r  that 
(one),  samma  the  same,  densam'ma*   the   same.     Sannna 
is  used   only    as    an    adjective;    the  others  are  used  both 
substantively  and  adjectively.  They  have  forms  as  follows: 

COMMON  NEUTER  PLURAL 

denna    (-<?)  delta  dessa 

*denn&s*  (-<?-0  ^-deltas  *dessas 


den 
*dess,  *dens 

del 
*<&ss 

dc 
*der&s 
*dcm 

den  iia  r 

del  ha'  r 

de  Jiii'r 

den  da'r 

del  da'r 

dc  dar 

samma   (-^) 

samma 

samma 

densam'ma  (-<?) 
*densam'mas  (-es) 

detsam'  ma 
*dctsam'  mas 

desanfma 

^desam'  mas 

1  See  foot-note  3,  page  227. 

2  Some  write  'den  samma,  using  densamma  only  in  the  use  described  in  note  6. 

3  The  forms  preceded   by   an  asterisk   are  used   only   substantively    (see 
§  265).     When   these   pronouns   are   employed  substantively,  all  the  forms 
given   are   used;  when  they  are  employed    adjectively,  only   the  forms  not 
preceded  by  an  asterisk  are  used. 


XXII  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  205 

Note.  —  i.  The  forms  ending  in  -e,  -es  (denne,  samme,  den- 
sam'me)  are  used  when  the  reference  is  to  persons  of  the  male  sex.1 
Cf.  §  151,  8  b  and  c.  Ex.:  Denne  gosse  ar  sjuk.  This  boy  is 
sick.  Det  ar  samme  man,  jag  sag  i  g&r.  It  is  the  same  man  I 
saw  yesterday.  Han  ar  alltid  densam'me.  He  is  always  the  same. 

2.  The  genitive  dess,  which  is  used  only  in  referring  to  things, 
is  rare  as  a  demonstrative;  when  this  form  occurs,  it  is  usually  the 
genitive   of  the   personal   pronoun  (see   §§  264;  67,  3).     The   geni- 
tive  dens   is    used   only  when  a  determinative   (restrictive)   clause 
follows    (see  §  267);  it  refers  to  persons. 

3.  On  the  use  of  den  ha'r,  den  da'r,  see  §  273,  5,  with  reference. 
These  pronouns  have  no  genitive  even  when  used  substantively,  and 
no  objective  plural,  to  correspond  to   the   forms   dess,  deras,  dem 
of  the  pronoun  den.     Ex.:    Tag  de  Mr.   Take  these.     De  ddr  rill 
jag  inte  ha.     I  don't  want  those. 

4.  Densam'ma  (-<?)  is  almost  always  used  substantively,   samma 
(-e)   only   as  an  attributive  adjective.      Observe    that    densam'ma, 
though  used  substantively,  does  not  have  an  objective  form  in  the 
plural,  corresponding  to  dem,    from   den;    cf.    the   preceding   note. 
The  ending  is  in  both  these   words   that   of   the    ordinary    definite 
form  of  the  adjective.  Ex.:  Ar  den  dar  boken  densam'ma,  som  lag 
pa  ditt  bord  i  g&r?     Is    that    book    the  same   one  that  lay  on  your 
table  yesterday?     Varje  morgon  borjar  samma  tragna  arbete  vid 
samma  tidiga  timme.     Every  morning  the  same  hard  work  begins 
at  the  same  early  hour.      Vi  kommo  pd   samma  gang.     We   came 
at  the  same  time.     For  further  examples  see  note  i. 

5.  In  referring  back  to  a  word  that  is  not  in  the  subject-relation, 
dcnna  is  often  used  as  a  personal  proncun  of   the  third  person,  in 
order  to  preclude  ambiguity,  the  personal  pronouns  (/tan,  Aon,  den, 
del,  de)  usually  refer  to  the  subject  of  a  previous  clause.   Ex.:  Fa- 
dern  skrev  till  sin  son,  att  denne  mdste  resa  hem.  The  father  wrote 
to    his    son,  that   he    (the    son)    had  to  come  home.     D&  objek'tet 
utgores  av  ett  perso'nligt  prono'men,  stdr  delta   alltid  i  objekliv. 
When  the  object  consists  of  a  personal  pronoun,  it  (the  pers.  pron.) 
is  always  in  the  objective  form.     Om  en  hast  skyggar  for  en  veloci- 
pe'dryttare,  bor  denne  genast  stiga  av.  If  a  horse  shies  at  a  cyclist, 
he  (the  cyclist)  should  at  once  dismount.   Cf.  Om  en  velocipe'dryt- 

1    In  the  dictionaries  these  pronouns  will  be  found  under  the  forms  denne. 


206  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  XXII 

tare  moter  en  skyggande  hast,  bor  han  genast  stiga  av.     If   a  cy- 
clist meets  a  timid  horse,  he  should  at  once  dismount. 

6.  Densam'ma  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  the  personal  pro- 
nouns of  the  third  person,  particularly  in  long  sentences;  when  sc 
employed,  it  is  usually  for  variety  or  for  clearness.  Jag  sprang  till- 
ba'ka  till  skrivbordet,  drag  ut  den  Idda,  dar  jag  en  gdng  lagt  ned 
nyckeln,  och  borjade  leta  efter  densam'ma.  I  ran  back  to  the 
desk,  opened  the  drawer  into  which  I  once  had  put  the  key,  and 
began  to  look  for  it.  Ehu'ru  framstallningen  av  ellip'sens  natu'r 
egen'tligen  tillhor  formlaran,  torde  det  dock  vara  lampligt  att  heir 
redogorafor  densam'mas  forna'msta  typer.  Although  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  nature  of  ellipsis  really  belongs  to  accidence,  it  is  per- 
haps in  order  to  give  here  an  account  of  its  leading  types. 

267-  VARIOUS  USES  OF  DEMONSTRATIVES.  Besides  its 
ordinary  demonstrative  use,  of  which  an  example  is  given 
in  §  268,  the  pronoun  den  may  be  used  as  the  antecedent 
of  a  determinative  (restrictive)  clause.1  In  this  case  it 
is  usually  rendered  into  English  by  "he"  or  "the  one", 
when  used  substantively,  and  by  "the"  when  used  adjec- 
tively.  The  genitive  singular  is  in  the  determinative  use 
dens,  which  form  can  be  u.sed  only  in  this  way.2  Ex.:  Den 
asikten,  att  solen  gar  runt  om  jorden,  ar  langesedan  bvergivcn. 
The  theory  that  the  sun  passes  around  the  earth  is  long 
dead.  Det  land*  m  kalla  vart  the  land  we  call  ours.  De 
prono'mina,3  m  nu  tala  om,  kallas  determinate va.  The  pro- 
nouns we  are  now  talking  about  are  called  determinative 
pronouns.  Jag  har  den  dran  att  gratule'ra.  Allow  me 
to  congratulate  you.  (Lit.:  I  have  the  honor  .  .  .  ). 
Den,  som  kommer  sist,  far  inte  mycket.  The  one  who 
comes  last  won't  get  much.  Den  ar  adlast,  som  forst 
racker  handen  till  fdrso'ning.  He  is  noblest  who  first  ex- 
tends  his  hand  in  reconciliation.  De,  som  aro  rika, 

1  Also  other  pronouns  may  be  so  used,  but  such  use  calls  for  no  comment 
in  the  case  of  these,  there  being  no   difference   in   idiom    between   the   two 
languages. 

2  Cf.  §  266,  note  2. 

3  Relative  pronoun  omitted;  see  §  281. 


XXII  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  207 

dro  icke  alltid  lyckliga.  Those  who  are  rich  are  not  always 
happy.  Ratta  dig  efter  dens  rad,  soni  vill  ditt  basta. 
Follow  the  advice  of  him  who  wishes  you  well.  Start 
ar  deras  antal,  som  blivit  svikna.  I/arge  is  the  number 
of  those  who  have  been  deceived. 

Note. —  I.  The  neuter  singular  of  demonstratives  may  be  used 
as  the  subject,  irrespective  of  the  number  and  gender  of  a  predicate 
noun.  Ex.:  Detta  ar  sanima  hund,  som  jag  sdg  i gar.  This  is  the 
same  dog  I  saw  yesterday.  Det  har  ar  en  gammal  bok.  This  is 
an  old  book.  Det  dar  var  en  bra  hast.  That  is  a  good  horse.  Det 
arinin  bror.  That  is  my  brother.  Det  ar1  alia  stolar,z  jag  har 
kunnat  anskaffa.  Those  are  all  the  chairs  I  have  been  able  to 
get.  Ar1  det  dina  barn?  Are  those  your  children?  Detta  ar1 
svarta  korsbdr.  These  are  black  cherries. 

2.  The  neuters  det  and  detta  may  be  used  to  represent  any  word 
or  expression.     Ex.:  Jag  ar  gammal.     Det  (=  gammal)  ar  du  for 
restcn  ocksa.     I   am   old.    So   are   you,  for   that  matter.     Han  ar 
skomakare.     Det    var  hans  far  ocksd.     He  is  a  shoemaker.     So 
was  his  father.     Man  bor  gora  sitt  basta.     Det  kan  vem  som  heist 
gora.     One    should   do    one's  best.     Any  one   (at  all)  can  do  that. 
Han   vill   bli  lakare,  men  det  passar  han  inte  till.     He  wants  to 
be  a  physician,  but  he  isn't  cut  out  for  that. 

3.  On   the   use   of   adverbial  compounds  in  place  of  demonstra- 
tives depending  upon  a  preposition,  see  §  172,  i,  note  2. 

268.  When  these  demonstratives  are  used  as  adjec- 
tives, the  following  noun  is  put  in  the  definite  form, 
except  in  the  case  of  denna  (-e)  and  samma  (-e~).  Ex.: 
Den  tavlan  ar  vackrast.  That  picture  is  the  prettiest.  Bor 
du  i  det  har  husct?  Do  you  live  in  this  house?  On  the 
other  hand:  Detta  ar  mitt  sista  ord  i  denna  sak. ,  This  is 
my  last  word  in  this  matter.  Denna  vackra  stad  ar 
Sveriges  huvudstad.  This  beautiful  city  is  the  capital  of 
Sweden.  Det  ar  samme  man.  It  is  the  same  man.  Vi 
kunna  ju  ga  samma  vag.  We  might  go  the  same  way. 

1  Note  that  the  verb  is  in  the  singular,  and  not  in   the   plural,  as  is  the 
case  in   German. 

2  See  page  206,  foot-note  3. 


208  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  XXII 

Note.  —  i.  Den  is  followed  by  the  noun  in  the  indefinite  form 
when  it  is  the  antecedent  of  a  determinative  (restrictive)  relative1 
clause.  Ex.:  De  gossar,  som  vilja  folja  med,  fd  rack  a  upp  handen. 
The  boys  who  want  to  go  along  may  hold  up  their  hands.  Kellgren 
angrcp  haftigt  de*  svenska  skalder,  som  icke  diktade  efter  franska 
•monster.  Kellgren  attacked  vigorously  the  Swedish  poets  that  did 
not  write  after  French  models.  De  former,  av  vilka  ovriga  bil- 
das,  kallas  temaformer.  The  forms  from  which  the  rest  are  made, 
are  called  the  principal  parts.  Den  sak,  (som)  du  taladc  om  the 
matter  you  were  speaking  of.  Jag  har  sett  del  stdlle,  varonfi  du 
talar.  I  have  seen  the  place  you  are  speaking  of.  Del  arbete, 
varmed3  du  ar  sysselsatt,  synes  aldrig  bli  fdrdigt.  The  work  in 
which  you  are  engaged  seems  never  to  become  finished.  Atskilli- 
ga  Idnord  behdl'la  den  plura'l,  de  ha  i  det  sprdk,  varifrdn3  de 
lanats.  Several  loan-words  retain  the  plural-ending  they  have  in 
the  language  from  which  they  have  been  borrowed.  Den  tid,  dd 
vapen  och  verktyg  huvudsakligen  gjordes  av  sten,  har  kallats  sten- 
dldern.  The  period  when  weapons  and  implements  were  made 
chiefly  of  stone  has  been  called  the  Stone  Age.  Den  bok,  jag  nu 
laser  z,  ar  rolig.  The  book  I  am  now  reading  is  amusing.  Den 
plats,  dar  han  tillbragt  natten.  The  place  where  he  has  (or  had) 
spent  the  night.  Den  dag  skall  komma,  dd  du  far  dngra  detta. 
The  day  will  come  when  you  will  be  sorry  for  this. 

2.  On  the  form  of  adjectives  that  follow  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns (except  those  of  §  269)  see  §  147,  2. 

269.  OTHER  DEMONSTRATIVES.  In  addition  to  the 
pronouns  of  §  266,  the  following  adjectives  have  demonstra- 
tive meaning:  sadan  such;  likadan*  similar,  of  the  same 
sort;  dylik  such,  similar.  These  are  never  put  in  the  def- 
inite form.  Both  adjectives  and  nouns  following  these  have 
the  indefinite  form.  These  pronouns  may  be  preceded  by 

1  Including  clauses   introduced   by  a  relative  adverb  of  time  or  place. — 
But  the   demonstrative  den  is    almost    always  (except   in   certain  phrases) 
followed  by  the  noun  in  the  def.  form  -when  a  clause  introduced  by  att  (fol- 
lowed by  the  indicative)  follows.     Similarly,  -when  an  infinitive  follows  the 
noun,  the  latter  rarely  has  the  indefinite  form.  See  the  examples  in  §  267. 

2  Note  that  de  is  not  the  prepositive  article  here,  which  it  would  be  if  the 
noun  had  definite  form;  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  would  then  be  different. 

3  See§  281,  note  3. 

4?  Li'kadan  or  likada'n. 


TLKY 

XXII  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  209 

the  indefinite  article;  observe  in  this  case  the  difference  in 
word-order  in  connection  with  the  English  "such".  Ex.: 
Sadana  djur  har  du  veil  aldrig  sett  fbru' t.  I  suppose  you 
have  never  seen  such  animals  before.  En  sadan  bok  such 
a  book.  Han  ar  ej  en  sadan,  som  du  tror.  He  is  not  such 
a  one  as  you  think.  Sddant  duger  icke.  Such  a  thing 
won't  do.  Han  talade  om  vadret  och  annat  dylikt.  He 
talked  about  the  weather  and  other  things  like  that. 

270.  IDIOMATIC  EXPRESSIONS.  Note  the  following 
expressions  connected  with  demonstratives:  det  gbr  (ar) 
detsam'ma  it  doesn't  matter,  it  makes  no  difference;  z"  det- 
sam'ma  just  then,  at  that  moment;  med  detsam'ma  at 
once;  till  dess  till  then;  innan  dess  before  that;  sedan 
dess  since  then;  cf.  dess  (battre},  §  175;  den  trettonde  den- 
nes  the  thirteenth  instant. 

271-  SUMMARY  OF  THE  VARIOUS  USES  OF  "DEN".» 
In  previous  lessons  we  have  seen  den  employed: 

(1)  adjectively,    as    the     prepositive     definite     article 
(forms,  den,  det,  de)\ 

(2)  substantively,  as  a  personal  pronoun  (forms,    den, 
det,    de,    dem,    dess,    deras~).      In    both    these    uses    it    is 
unstressed. 

Thirdly,  we  have  in  this  lesson  seen  it  employed  as  a 
demonstrative  pronoun.  As  such  it  may  be  used  either 
adjectively  or  substantively.  When  used  adjectively,  its 
forms  are  identical  with  those  of  the  prepositive  definite 
article.  When  used  substantively,  it  has  forms  identical2 
with  those  of  the  personal  pronoun.  The  demonstrative 
pronoun  is  stressed  (except,  frequently,  in  the  use  men- 
tioned in  §  267).  In  short: 

1  In   addition,   certain   of  the   substantive   forms  of  den  may  be  used  as 
a  relative  pronoun;  see  the  following  lesson. 

2  The  demonstrative  pronoun  has,  in  addition,  the  form  dens:  see  §  266, 
note  2. 


210  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS     ,  XXII 

ADJECTIVE  USE      SUBSTANTIVE  USE 
(den,  det,  de)  (den,  del,  de,  dem,  dess,  deras) 

Stressed:    Demonstrative         Demonstrative 
Unstress. :  Prepos.  article        Personal  pronoun 

212.  ACCENT.  Sadan  has  the  acute  accent.  —  Samma 
and  densam'ma  may  have  either  the  acute  or  the  grave 
accent;  varan' dra  usually  has  the  grave  accent.  —  Eder 
(objective)  usually  has  the  acute  accent;  eder  (possess- 
ive) usually  has  the  grave  accent. 

273-  COLLOQUIALISMS:  (i)  Colloquial  matters  relating 
to  pronouns  have  been  treated  above,  §§  39,  i,  2  and  6; 
53,  4  and  5;  67,  i,  3  and  4;  191,  5  and  6. 

(2)  In  easy  speech  the  objective  form  of  the  personal 
pronouns  may  be  used  after  an  and   som.     Ex.:  Han   dr 
dldre  an  mig.     He  is  older  than  I. 

(3)  Primarily  in  the  spoken  language  the  personal  pro- 
noun   as  a  subject  is  often  repeated.     Ex.:    Han  dr  inte 
dum,    han.     He   is    not    such    a    blockhead   either.     Din 
stackars  mor  har   aldrig   sett    nagot   annat   an     Vdrmland, 
hon.     Your  poor   mother   has    never    seen   anything  else 
than  Varmland. 

(4)  The  objective  form  eder  of   the   personal    pronoun 
belongs  to  the  elevated  style,  er  being   the    form    other- 
wise used.     On  the  contrary,  the  forms  eder,  edert,   edra 
of  the  possessive  pronoun  are  employed  beyond  the  limits 
of  elevated  style,  occurring  not  infrequently  in  the  ordi- 
nary written   and   spoken   language   beside    the    shorter 
forms   er,    ert,    era.     Easy    speech,  however,  always   has 
the  shorter  forms  of  the  possessives. 

(5)  Den  ddr  is  in  the  spoken  language  and  frequently 
in  the  written  language  used  instead  of   the    demonstra- 
tive den;  cf.  §  39,    i. 


XXII  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  211 

(6)  The    genitives   dess   and  dens    are  not  used   in    the 
spoken  language;  cf.  §  67,  3,  on  the  use  of  dess  as  gen- 
itive of  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person. 

(7)  When  denna  is  employed   in  the  spoken   language1 
(cf.  §§39,   i;  67,  i),  it  is  regularly  followed  by  the  noun 
in  the  definite  form. 

(8)  In  the  spoken    language,    den   is   followed   by  the 
noun  in  the  definite  form  also  when  it  is  the  antecedent  of 
a  restrictive  relative  clause  (cf.  §  268,  note  i).     In  place 
of  den  followed  by  the  noun  in  the  definite  form,  merely 
the  definite  form  of  the  noun  is  preferred  in  the  spoken 
language   when    the  noun  is  not   modified   by    an    adjec- 
tive.   Ex.:  Ge  mig  boken,  som  ligger  darbor'ta.     Give  me 
the  book  that  is  lying  over  there.    Jag  bar  in  alia  mina 
saker  i  rummet,  dar  jag  skidle  bo.     I  carried  all  my  things 
into  the  room  where  I  was  to  live. 

SUMMARY: 

WRITTEN  SPOKEN 

[den  boken,  som,  or 
(Without  adj.)<fr«  bok,  som  \boken,  som 

(With  adj.)        den  nya  bok,  som  den  nya  boken,  som 

(9)  The  demonstrative  pronoun  dylik  is  foreign  to  the 
spoken  language.     So  also  expressions    like   den  trettonde 
demies  (§  270). 

(10)  In    the  spoken   language,  samma  en  is  frequently 
used  in  place  of  the  substantive  densam'ma. — The  use  of 
denna  and  densam'ma,  mentioned  in  §  266,  notes  5  and  6, 
is  entirely  foreign  to  spoken  Swedish. 

(u)  In  easy  speech,  sadan  may   be    shortened    to   s&n 
(vowel  long  or  short). 

1   In  the  spoken  language,  denna  is  used  chiefly  in  Southern  and  Western 
Sweden. 


212  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  XXII 

EXERCISE    XXII. 

But  Violanta  followed  the  course  of  the  stream  through 
pastures  and  groves,  over  fields  and  plains.  And  then  the 
river  came  to  a  long  range  of  green  hills.  When  Violanta 
and  the  river  arrived  at  the  other  side  [of]  the  hills1, 
[there]  lay  a  beautiful  region  before  them.  Meadows  full 
of  tall  grass  and  fragrant  flowers  spread  out  under  oaks 
and  linden-trees,  and  right  on2  the  very  prettiest  meadow 
[there]  was  a  large  white  house  in  a  flower-garden. 

Violanta  saw  that  in  the  shadow  of  a  large  chestnut  - 
tree  [there]  reclined  a  woman  in  an  easy-chair  reading 
a  book.  She  was  tall  and  slender,  and  very  pale.  Her 
black  eyelashes  cast  a  shadow  on  her  white  cheeks,  and 
over  her  black  hair  she  had  a  violet-colored  veil.  Her 
dress  was  of  the  softest  silk3. 

She  lay  so  quiet  that  Violanta  at  first  thought  that 
she  was  sleeping.  But  all  of  a  sudden  she  looked  up 
with  a  pair  of  large,  thoughtful  eyes.  "Come  closer," 
she  said  with  [a]  gentle  voice  and  extended  her  hand.  It 
was  a  slender,  white  hand,  on  which4  [there]  flashed  a 
blue  jewel.  "Whither  are  you  running  in  the  summer's 
heat5?"  she  asked.  Violanta  stopped,  warm  and  out  of 
breath6.  "To  the  wild  waves  of  the  sea,"  she  answered. 
— "Oh  yes,"7  said  the  beautiful  lady  and  smiled,  "so 
many  go  that  way8,  but  they  rarely  come  back.  You  had 
better  stay9  with  me;  I  may  need10  you,  and  it  is  good 
to  be  here;  the  longer  you  stay  with  me,  the  more  it 
will  please  you." 

1  Pa  andra  sidan  kullarna.  6    Out  of  breath  andfadd. 

2  Mitt  pa.  7  Jasa. 

3  Use  prepositive,  but  no  post-  8   Place  the  Swedish  for  that  way  im- 
positive,  article  mediately  after  smiled. 

4,   On  -which  varpa.  9   Stanna  du  hellre. 

5    Sommarvarpie.  10  Jag  kan  beho'va. 


XXII  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  213 

Then  Violanta  asked  in  what  way1  she  could  help 
her,  for  she  thought  that  this  was  a  good  place.  "Well, 
you  see2,"  answered  the  stranger,  "I  lie  here  quietly 
under  the  trees.  I  can  see  both  the  sky  and  the  earth 
and  the  river;  and  I  can  read  about  all  the  wonders  of 
nature  in  this  book.  But  I  lack  one  thing.3  I  cannot 
walk,  but  must  always  lie  still." 

1  PA  vilket  satt.  3   Men  ett  fattas  mig. 

2  Invert,  "ser  du". 


214  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  XXIII 


LESSON  XXIII. 
RELATIVE    AND    INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

274.  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.1     Tfle    relative    pronouns 
are  som,  vilken,  vad,  den,  den'  dar  and  the  genitive  vars. 

275.  Som,    which   is   used    only   substantively,  is   the 
relative  pronoun  occurring  most  frequently.     It    is    inde- 
clinable, and   may    be    used  in  referring  both  to  persons 
and  to  things,  and  to  nouns  of  either  gender  or  number, 
both  in   the  subject  and  object  relation.     But  it  cannot 
stand    in    the    genitive   relation,  the  other  relatives  that 
have  genitive  forms  being  used  instead.     It  may  be  gov- 
erned by  a  preposition,  but  the  preposition  must  always 
follow,  standing  at  the  end  of  the  clause.     As  a  rule,  the 
use  of  the  other  relative  pronouns  is  avoided  when  som  can 
be   used.      Ex.:    Han    ar   en    van,  som  jag  kan  lita  pa. 
He  is  a  friend  on  whom  I  can  depend.     Alia,  som  kanna 
Jionom,  veta   aft  han    ar  palitlig.      All    who    know    him, 
know  that  he  is  reliable.     Detta  ar  ett  dmne,  som  ar  svart 
att  behan'dla.      This   is  a  subject    that    is    hard  to  treat. 
For  further  examples  see  §§  267;  268,  note  i. 

Note.  —  After  superlatives,  and  personal  and  indefinite  pronouns, 
som  is  the  relative  regularly  used.  Ex.:  Detta  ar  den  vackraste 
stad,  som  jag  nagonsin  sett.  This  is  the  most  beautiful  city  I 
have  ever  seen.  Ingen,  som  vill  ga,  beho'ver  stanna  hemma.  No 
one  who  wants  to  go,  need  stay  at  home.  Ar  det  ndgon,  som  vet 
det?  Is  there  anyone  who  knows  it? 

276.  Vilken,    which  may    be    used    either  adjectively 
or  substantively  (usually  the  latter2),  referring  either  to 
persons  or  things,  has  the  following  forms: 

1  Concerning  indefinite  relatives  see  §  309. 

2  Vilken  is  the  only  adjective  pronoun  among  the  relatives   in   Swedish, 
but,  as  in  English,  adjectival  relatives  are  not  of  frequent  occurrence. 


XXIII  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  215 

COMMON  NEUTER  PLURAL 

vilken  v  it  kef*  vilka 

*vilkensl  *vilkets*  *vilkas 

This  pronoun  is  not  of  nearly  so  frequent  occurrence 
as  som.  However,  when  an  adjectival  relative  pronoun 
is  needed,  vilken  must  be  used.  As  a  substantive  pro- 
noun it  must  be  employed  in  place  of  som  when  the 
antecedent  is  a  clause.4  Ex.:  (Adj.)  Sverige  slot  sig  1835 
till  England  och  Frankrike,  vilka  stater  da  voro  Rysslands 
fiender.  In  1855  Sweden  allied  itself  with  England  and 
France,  which  countries  were  at  that  time  hostile  to  Russia. 
(Subst.)  Konung  Erik  frigav  sin  broder  Johan,  vilkefi  han 
sedan  angrade.  King  Eric  released  his  brother  John, 
a  thing  which  he  afterwards  regretted. 

Note. — i.  To  some  extent,  vilken  (in  its  substantive  use)  and  som 
are  used  interchangeably.5  In  some  cases,  vilken  may  even  be  used 
to  advantage:  (a)  Its  use  sometimes  prevents  ambiguity.  Because 
it  is  inflected,  it  is  generally  clear  what  the  antecedent  is,  while 
with  som  this  may  be  doubtful.  Ex.:  Fonstren  p&  huset,  vilka  vi 
bctrak'tade.  The  windows  which  we  were  looking  at  in  the  house. 
Ett  miirkligt  tidens  tecken  tiro  ocksd  de  stravanden  till  inforande 
av  ett  geme'nsamt  varldssprdk,  vilka  Idnge  Idtit  hora  av  sig.  A 
notable  sign  of  the  times  are  also  the  attempts  to  introduce  a 
universal  language  which  have  long  been  heard  of.  (b)  Sometimes 
it  may  be  advantageously  used  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  when 
som,  as  a  relative  or  as  a  conjunction,  stands  near.  Ex.:  Hans 
slaktingar,  som  nu  kornmit  hit  och  vilka  han  ej  sett  pd  lange, 
aro  mycket  rika.  His  relatives,  who  have  now  come  here,  and 
whom  he  has  not  seen  for  a  long  time,  are  very  wealthy,  (c)  If 
a  governing  preposition  cannot  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  clause, 
vilken  must  be  employed.  Moreover,  some  people  (unneces- 

1  Concerning  the  meaning  of  the  asterisk  see  page  204,  foot-note  3. 

2  On  the  substitution  of  t  for  «  in  the  neuter  see  §§  3O;  151,  1,  and  p.  93, 
foot-note. 

3  This  form  is  rare;  see  §  276,  note  2. 

4  In  such  cases,  n&eot  som  may  be  used  instead,  but  never  som  alone. 

5  Authors  differ  much  in  the  extent  of  their  use  of  vilken,  many  employing 
it  freely  beside  sont.  in  no  way  limiting  themselves  to  the  uses  here  specified. 


2l6  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  XXIII 

sarily)  object  to  placing  prepositions  at  the  end  of  the  clause, 
preferring  to  put  them  before  the  relative,  in  which  case 
vilken  must  be  used.1  Ex.:  Denna  egendomliga  stilart  tvang 
honom  till  djarva  ordskapelser,  av  vilka  de  fiesta  torde  std  en- 
staka  inom  vdr  litteratu'r.  This  peculiar  style  forced  him  into 
many  bold  word-coinages,  most  of  which  are  unique  in  our  literature. 
Den  sak,  om  vilken  vi  talade  the  matter  about  which  we  were 
speaking. 

2.  Vars  (see  §  277)  is  frequently  used  in  place  of  the  genitive 
singular  (especially  in  the  neuter)  of  vilken,  and  sometimes,  though 
much  more  rarely,  in  place  of  the  genitive  plural.  Examples  of 
the  genitive  of  vilken:  Enkla  kallas  ord,  vilkas  delar  icke  hava 
ndgon  egen  bety'delse.  Words  whose  parts  have  no  meaning  of 
their  own,  are  called  simple. 

211-  Vars,  which,  being  a  genitive,  can  be  used  only 
substantively,  is  employed  chiefly  in  referring  to  a  sin- 
gular antecedent,  but  sometimes  also  to  an  antecedent 
in  the  plural.  The  antecedent  may  be  of  either  gender, 
referring  either  to  persons  or  to  things.  Since  som  cannot 
be  used  in  the  genitive  relation,  and  since  the  genitive 
of  vilken  is  not  of  .particularly  frequent  occurrence,  it 
follows  that  vars  is  the  word  usually  employed  to  express 
the  genitive  idea  in  the  case  of  relative  pronouns.  Ex.: 
Ingen,  vars  samvete  ar  vaket,  kan  handla  sa.  No  one 
whose  conscience  is  awake  can  do  that.  V&rda  det  trad, 
i  vars  skugga  du  sitter!  Care  for  the  tree  in  the  shade 
of  which  you  sit. 

278.  Vad,  which  is  used  only  substantively,  is  neuter 
singular.  When  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  clause, 
som  is  almost  always  added.  This  pronoun  has  two  uses: 

(i)  Meaning  "that  which",  including  its  antecedent. 
Ex. :  Vad  du  sdger,  ar  sant.  What  you  say  is  true. 
Sag  alltid,  vad  som  ar  sant.  Always  say  that  which  is 
true.  Vad  som  mest  oroade  inig,  var  mina  fienders  tyst- 

1    See§  281,  note  1. 


XXIII  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  217 

nad.  That  which  disturbed  me  most  was  the  reticence 
of  my  enemies.  Mycket  av  vad  hon  sag  misshagade  hen- 
ne.  Much  of  what  she  saw  displeased  her.  Vad  fadern 
paborjat,  fortsatte  sonerna.  The  sons  continued  what  their 
father  had  started.  Vad  Anders  mest  angslades  for,  var 
exerd'sen.  That  which  A.  was  most  worried  about  was 
the  military  drill. 

(2)  With  allt  all,  as  the  antecedent.1  When  vad  is  gov- 
erned by  a  preposition,  the  preposition  must  in  this  case 
follow  at  the  end  of  the  clause.  Ex.:  Det  ar  allt,  vad 
jag  har  hbrt  om  honoin.  That  is  all  that  I  have  heard 
about  him.  Allt,  vad  jag  fbrr  glatt  mig  at,  var  nu  borta. 
All  that  I  had  formerly  delighted  in  was  now  gone.  Min 
bror  lyckas  i  allt,  vad  han  agnar  sig  dt.  My  brother  is 
successful  in  everything  to  which  he  applies  himself. 
Den  ddrgossen  villehava  allt,  vad  han  sag.  That  boy  wanted 
everything  he  saw.  Allt,  vad  som  hittills  ndmnts  sasom 
verkande  atskillnad  i  sprakct,  fick  bkad  kraft  genom  skrif- 
ten.  All  that  has  hitherto  been  mentioned  as  producing 
a  distinction  in  language,  got  fresh  impetus  through  the 
art  of  writing. 

279.  Den,  which  is  used  only  substantively,  is  not  of 
frequent  occurrence.  When  used,  it  is  employed  chiefly 
for  variety  or  euphony.  It  is  inflected  like  the  demon- 
strative den  (see  §  266),  but  can  not  be  used  in  the 
genitive,  nor  as  subject.  Its  forms,  then,  are  den,  det 
(these  used  only  in  the  object  relation)  and  dem.  The 
neuter  form  is  very  little  used.  This  pronoun  is  rare 
as  indirect  object.  It  refers  more  often  to  persons  than 
to  inanimate  objects.  When  den  is  governed  by  a  prep- 
osition, the  preposition  must  follow  at  the  end  of  the 
clause.  Ex.:  En  man,  den  alia  bevi'sa  aktning  a  man 

1  After  allt,  also  som  may  be  used  as  a  relative  pronoun.  Ex.:  Allt  ar  ej 
guld.  som  glimmar.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 


218  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  XXIII 

whom  all  respect.  Kungen  lovade  mig  sitt  portraft,  det 
jag  en  tid  efterat  fick  mottaga.  The  king  promised  me  his 
picture,  which  I  received  some  time  later.  Om  fienden  en 
g&ng  skulle  anfalla  oss,  det  Gud  fbrbju'de,  maste  han  Jin- 
na  oss  rustade.  If  the  enemy  should  ever  attack  us, 
which  Heaven  forbid,  he  must  find  us  prepared.  Det 
held  var  henne  annu  som  en  dr'dm,  den  hon  sag  in  i  och 
forlo'rade  sig  i.  It  was  still  all  as  a  dream  to  her,  into 
which  she  looked  and  in  which  she  lost  herself.  Jag 
namner  detta  sdsom  villkor,  dent  jag  ej  mil  eftergiva.  I 
state  these  as  conditions  that  I  do  not  want  to  withdraw. 
Alia  planer,  dent  han  icke  fatt  fidlborda  all  the  plans  that 
he  has  (or,  had)  not  been  able  to  carry  out.  Perso'ner, 
dem  alia  hederliga  manniskor  avsky  persons  whom  all 
honorable  people  detest. 

280.  Den'  dar,1  which  is  used  only  substantively,  is 
not  of  frequent  occurrence.  When  used,  it  is  employed 
chiefly  for  variety  or  euphony.  It  is  inflected  like  the 
demonstrative  den  da'r  (see  §  266),  having  the  forms 
den'  dar,  de't  ddr,  de1  dar,  and  no  genitive;  note,  how- 
ever, the  difference  in  the  syllable  stressed.1  It  can  be 
used  practically  only  as  the  subject.  It  is  employed  perhaps 
more  freely  in  referring  to  persons  than  to  inanimate  ob- 
jects. Ex. :  Rastlos  sdsom  en,  den  dar  skall  bbrja  en  lang  resa. 
Restless  like  one  who  is  about  to  start  on  a  long  journey. 
Detta  far  sta  sdsom  ett  pastaende,  det  dar  for/at' taren  efter 
beha'g  kan  antaga  eller  forkas'ta.  This  may  stand  as  an 
assertion  which  the  author  can  adopt  or  reject  as  he  likes. 
Den  narvarande  tiden  fbreter  ganska  manga  tecken,  de  dar 
tyda  pa  fara.  The  present  time  shows  very  many  signs 
that  point  to  danger. 

1  In  connected  speech  the  stress  on  den  is  weaker  than  when  den  diir  is 
pronounced  by  itself.  Not  infrequently,  owing  to  the  stress-conditions 
of  surrounding  words,  this  (weak)  stress  is  shifted  to  ddr.  and  den  becomes 
unstressed. 


XXIII  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  219 

281.  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  RELATIVES.  Relative 
pronouns  -introducing  restrictive  clauses  may  be  omitted 
when  they  would  be  in  the  object  relation  (both  direct 
and  indirect).  They  may  also  be  omitted  when  depend- 
ing on  a  preposition;  this  then  stands  after  the  predicate. 
Ex.:  Var  dr  den  ddr  boken,  jag  gav  dig?  Where  is  that 
book  I  gave  you?  Var  dr  den,  jag  gav  dig  i  somras? 
Where  is  the  one  I  gave  you  last  summer?  Det  var  min 
bok,  dti  tog.  It  was  my  book  you  took.  Den  bok,  jag  nu 
laser  i,  dr  rolig.  The  book  I  am  now  reading  is  amusing. 
Man  bar  uppfylla  de  Id/ten,  man  givit.  One  should  ful- 
fill the  promises  one  has  made.  Blommorna,  jag  fick, 
satte  jag  i  vatten.  The  flowers  that  I  received,  I  have 
placed  in  water.  Var  dr  fagelboet,  du  talade  om?  Where 
is  the  bird's  nest  you  spoke  of?  Hdr  dr  den  gosse,  du 
gav  applet  at.  Here  is  the  boy  you  gave  the  apple  to. 
Vem  var  det,  du  hdlsade  pa  ?  Who  was  it  you  greeted  ? 

Note.  —  i.  Som,  den  and  vad  (when  used  after  altt]  cannot  be 
preceded  by  a  preposition.  When  these  relatives  are  governed  by 
a  preposition,  this  must  stand  at  the  end  of  the  clause.  For  exam- 
ples see  under  the  various  relatives,  and  §§  267;  268,  note  i. 

Vilken,  while  usually  preceded  by  a  governing  preposition,  if 
there  is  one,  may  have  it  at  the  end  of  the  clause.  Ex.:  Det  ar- 
bcte,  med  vilket  du  sysselsatter  dig  (or  vilket  du  sysselsatter  dig 
med},  dr  mycket  modosamt.  The  work  in  which  you  are  engaged 
is  very  difficult. 

Vad  (when  =  "that  which")  is  usually,  but  not  always,  followed 
by  the  preposition. 

2.  In   proverbs   and    legal    language    the    relative   is    sometimes 
omitted  after  den,  when  it  would  be  the  subject.     The  verb  in  the 
(few-clause  stands  last.     Ex.:   Den  ilia,  gor,  han  ilia  far.     He  who 
does  ill,  fares  ill.    Den  ndgot  spar,  han  ndgot  har.    He  who  saves 
something,  has  something.     Den  det  gor,  straffas  med   boter.     He 
who  does  that  is  liable  to  a  fine. 

3.  On  the  use  of  adverbial  compounds  in  place    of  relatives  de- 
pending upon  a  preposition,  see  §  172,  i,  note  2. 


220  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  XXIII 

INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

282-  The  interrogative  pronouns  are  vem  who,    whom; 
vilken  which,  who(m);  vad  what;  vad  for  {en}  what  kind 
of  (a),  what;  vilkendera  which,  which  of  two  (or,  them); 
/nirudan1  of  what  kind. 

283-  Vem  is   used   only   substantively,    as  a   singular'2 
pronoun,  referring  to  persons.     It  may  stand  either  in  the 
subject  or  object  relation  (=  "who",  "whom").     It  has  a 
genitive,  veins.     Ex.:    Vem  har  bppnat  dbrren?   Who  has 
opened  the  door?      Vem  kan  vara  glad  under  sadana  fbr- 
hal'landen?     Who   can   be    glad    under   such   conditions? 

Vem  kommer  i  kvdll?  Who  is  coming  this  evening?  Vem 
Till  du  trajfa  ?  Whom  do  you  want  to  see  ?  Veins  tins 
ar  delta?  Whose  house  is  this?  Vems  ar  den  dar  has- 
ten? Whose  is  that  horse? 

284.  Vilken    (for   its  forms  see    §  276)    is  used   both 
adjectively3  and  substantively,  referring  either  to  persons 
or  things.    Ex.:    Vilken  bok  vill  du  ha?     Which  book  do 
you    want  ?      Vilka   voro    hans    vdnner  ?     Who    were    his 
friends  ?     Vilka  dro  dina  fbrdl'drar?    Who    are  your  par- 
ents?     Vilken  av  dein  har  kbpt  huset  ?    Who  of  them  has 
bought  the  house  ?    Vilken  menar  du?  Whom  do  you  mean? 
Vilkens  ber'dftelse  tycker  du  bast  oni ?    Whose  story  do  you 
like  best? 

285.  Vad  is   generally    used   substantively,    as  neuter 
singular,  referring  to  things.     It  has  no  genitive.      Ex.: 

Vad  sade  du  ?    What  did  you  say  ?     Vad  gor  du  ?    What 
are  you  doing?      Vad  vill  du  ha?     What    do    you    want? 
Vad  nytt?    What  news? 
Sometimes   it   is    used   as   an  adjective   (indeclinable), 

1  Also  stressed  on  the  last  syllable. 

2  Very  rarely  as  a  plural. 

3  As  an   interrogative,  -silken   is  much  more  frequentl3'  used  as  an   adje«- 


XXIII  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  221 

modifying  nouns  of  either  gender  in  the  singular,  rarely 
nouns  in  the  plural.  Ex.:  Vad  ratt  har  du  att  gbra 
delta?  What  right  have  you  to  do  this?  Vad  nytta  hade 
du  dara'v  ?  What  good  did  you  have  from  it  ?  Pa  vad 
grund  handlade  han  sa  f  For  what  reason  did  he  do  that  ? 
Vad  fbrdelar  har  du  dara'v?  What  advantages  have  you 
from  it  ? 

281).  Vad  for  en,  n.  vadfbr  ett,  is  used  both  adjectively 
and  substantively.  When  employed  substantively,  the 
plural  is  vad  for  ena;  as  an  adjective,  the  plural  is  vad 
for.  In  all  forms,  vad  may  be  separated  from  for  with 
intervening  words.  There  is  no  genitive.  Ex.:  Vad  for 
en  konimg  hade  Sverige  pa  den  tiden  ?  What  king  did 
Sweden  have  at  that  time?  Vad  har  du  for  en  halt? 
What  sort  of  a  hat  have  you?  Vad  for  ett  arende  har 
dit  ?  What  is  your  errand?  Vad  ar  det  for  gossarf 
Who  are  those  boys  ?  Vad  ar  du  for  en  ?  Who  are  you  ? 
(What  sort  of  a  fellow  are  you?)  Vad  ar  ni  for  ena? 
Who  are  you  (plnr.)? 

Before  nouns  that  on  account  of  their  meaning  can- 
not have  the  indefinite  article,  en  and  ett  of  the  forms  vad 
for  en,  vad  for  ett  are  omitted.  Ex.:  Vad  ar  det  har  for 
smbr  (vatten*)?  What  sort  of  butter  (water)  is  this  ?  Vad' 
var  det  for  folk?  What  sort  of  people  was  that?  Cf.  the 
omission  of  en  in  the  plural. 

287.  Vilkendera,1  n.  vilketdera,  is  generally  used  sub- 
stantively, sometimes  also  as  an  adjective,  in  which  case 
the  following  noun  is  in  the  definite  form.  On  account  of  its 
meaning  it  can  be  used  only  in  the  singular.  It  refers  to  one 
of  certain  definitely  known  objects,  very  often,  but  not 
always,  two  in  number.  The  genitive  is  vilkenderas,  vil- 
kctdcras.  Ex. :  Vilkendera  far  jag  ?  Which  may  I  have? 

1    Cf.  §  306. 


222  INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS  XXIII 

Vilketdera  huset  kbpte  du?  Which  of  the  houses  did 
you  buy?  Del  bbr  vara  ett  av  dessa  tre.  Valj  vil- 
ketdera1!  It  ought  to  be  one  of  these  three.  Decide 
which.  Har  ar  en  bok;  dr  det  Gerdas  eller  Axels,  sag 
mig,  mlkenderas  det  dr1.  Here  is  a  book;  is  it  Gerda's 
or  Axel's, — tell  me  whose  it  is. 

288.  Hiirudan,  n.  hurudant,  plur.  hurudana,  is  used 
only  as  an  adjective.  Ex.:  Hiirudana  skor  kbpte  du?  What 
kind  of  shoes  did  you  buy?  Hurndanl  ar  vattnet?  How 
is  the  water? 

289-  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  INTERROGATIVES.  (i)  In 
indirect  questions  the  forms  of  the  interrogatives  given 
above  are  used  only  in  the  object  relation.  When  an  inter- 
rogative is  the  subject  of  an  indirect  question,  som  is  al- 
most always  added.  Ex.:  (Direct.)  Vem  har  tag-it  den? 
Who  has  taken  it?  (Indirect;  subject.)  Jag  vet  ickc,  vem 
som  har  tagit  den.  I  don't  know  who  has  taken  it.  (In- 
direct; object.)  Jag  vet  icke,  vem  han  sbkte.  I  don't  know 
whom  he  was  looking  for.  Further  examples  of  inter- 
rogatives as  subjects  of  indirect  questions  are:  Plan  frd- 
gade,  vad  som  hade  hdnt.  He  asked  what  had  happened. 
Jag  vet  inte,  vems  kreatur  som  ha  betat  har.  I  don't 
know  whose  cattle  have  been  grazing  here.  Vet  du,  vilkcn 
vag  som  ar  genast?  Do  you  know  "which  way  is  the 
shortest?  Se  efter,  vem  som  ringde  pa  tambu' rdbrren.  Look 
and  see  who  rang  the  door-bell.  Jag  vet  icke,  vilken  som 
kommer.  I  do  not  know  who  is  coming.  Jag  vet  nog,  vad 
som  vore  bra  for  honom.  I  know  what  would  be  good  for 
him.  I  fa  ord  fick  hon  veta,  vad  som  hdnt  och  vad  (obj. )  dran- 
gen  hade  gjort.  In  a  few  words  she  was  told  what  had  hap- 
pened and  what  the  man-servant  had  done.  Vet  du, 
vad  for  folk  som  har  bott  har?  Do  you  know  what  sort 

1    Indirect  question. 


XXIII  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  223 

of  people  have  lived  here?  Pa  sa  satt  finner  man,  -vilket 
av  de  bada  objek'ten  som  m&ste  ga  fore  det  andra.  In  that 
way  one  can  tell  which  of  the  two  objects  must  stand 
before  the  other.  Vilkendcra  formen  som  kan  tankas  un- 
derforstadd,  far  ses  av  sammanhanget.  Which  form  is  im- 
plied, must  be  gathered  from  the  context.  In  cases  like 
jag  vet  inte,  vent  det  dr,  vein  is  not  the  subject. 

(2)  In  both  direct  and  indirect  questions,  prepositions  on 
which  interrogatives  depend,  very  often  stand  at  the  end 
of  the  clause.  Ex.:  (Before.)  At  vem  gav  han  ring  en  f  To 
whom  did  he  give  the  ring  ?  (At  end.)  Vem gick  han  sedan 
till?  To  whom  did  he  go  afterwards  ?  Jag  vet  icke,  vem  han 
gick  till.  I  don't  know  whom  he  went  to.  Vilket  hus  bor  du 
i  ?  Which  house  do  you  live  in  ?  Vad  tanker  du  pa  ? 
What  are  you  thinking  about?  Ing  en  vet,  vem  den  giri- 
ge  samlar  at.  No  one  knows  for  whom  the  miser  col- 
lects. Vilka  bocker  satter  du  mest  vdrde  pa?  Which 
books  do  you  value  most?  Vem  har  du  fatt  boken  ifra'n? 
From  whom  have  you  gotten  the  book? 

Note.  —  Concerning  the  use  of  adverbial  compounds  in  place  of 
interrogative  pronouns  depending  upon  a  preposition,  see  §  172,  I, 
note  2. 

290.  ACCENT.     Vilken   may    have   either   the  grave  or 
the  acute  accent. 

291.  COLLOQUIALISMS:      (i)    On     the    whole,    relative 
clauses,    as    other    subordinate    clauses,    are    used    more 
sparingly    in   the   spoken    than  in  the  written   language; 
the  spoken  language  frequently  substitutes  two  coordinate 
clauses  or  two  sentences. 

(2)  The  relative  pronoun  vilken  is  foreign  to  spoken 
Swedish.1  Where  in  the  written  language  its  use  is  ad- 
vantageous to  the  style,  or  necessary  for  grammatical 

1  Not  so  the  interrogative  •vilken. 


224      RELATIVE  AND  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS     XXIII 

reasons,  the  spoken  language  in  the  former  case  uses  sow, 
in  the  latter  it  employs  some  other  construction.  Exam- 
ples of  the  latter:  Han  fick  100  (read  hundra)  kroner, 
vilken  summa  han  skulle  anvanda  efter  eget  beha'g.  Spoken 
language:  Han  fick  100  kronor,  och  den  summan  skulle 
han  (fa)  anvanda  efter  eget  beha'g.  He  received  100 
crowns,  which  sum  he  was  to  use  as  he  liked.  Han  fick 
100  kronor,  vilket  gjorde  honom  stor  gladje.  Spoken  lan- 
guage: Han  fick  100  kronor,  och  det  gjorde  honom  stor 
gladje.  He  received  100  crowns,  which  afforded  him 
great  pleasure. 

(3)  The    relative  pronoun  vars   is  not    natural    to    the 
spoken  language,  which  in  the  case  of   the  genitive  idea 
usually  employs  some  other  manner  of  expression  than  the 
relative  construction.     Ex.:     Han  fick   100  kronor,  vilkas 
(or  vars}  anvandning   han    sjalv  fick  bestam'ma.     Spoken 
language:  Han  fick  100  kronor,  och  anvandning  en  fick  han 
sjalv   bestam'ma.     He    received    100    crowns,    about    the 
disposal  of  which  he  himself  could  decide. 

(4)  The  relative  pronouns  den  and  den'  dar  are  not  used 
in  the  spoken  language. 

(5)  In  the  spoken   language  the   preposition  regularly 
stands   at    the   end   of  a  relative   clause.     In  the  written 
language,   on    the    contrary,    it    frequently    precedes   the 
relative   pronoun;   this  is  due  to  the  frequent  use  of  the 
relative  vilken  in  the  written  language. 

(6)  While  prepositions  governing  interrogative  pronouns 
frequently   stand  at  the  end  of  the  clause  in    the   written 
language,  this  is  to  a  greater  extent  characteristic  of  the 
spoken   language. 

(7)  Vad  for  ena  (plur.)  is  used  substantively  both  in 
the   spoken  and  in  the  written  language;    in    the  spoken 
language  it  may  also  be  used  adjectively. 


XXIII    RELATIVE  AND  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS      225 

(8)  In    the   spoken    language,   a  shorter   form  hurdan^ 
may  be  used  for  hurudan. 

(9)  Concerning  the  pronunciation  of  vad  see  §   134,  4. 

(10)  In  easy  speech  the  interrogative  vilken  is  frequently 
pronounced  vicken. 

EXERCISE   XXIII. 

And  then'2  she  related  how  she  formerly  had  roamed 
about  everywhere.  No  forest  had  been  too  dense  for  her3, 
no  mountain  too  steep.  She  wanted  to  see  and  know 
everything4  in  nature,  she  wanted  to  reach  everything4. 

But  one  day  she  had  wandered  high  up  on  a  moun- 
tain, and  out  on  a  ledge  she  had  caught  sight  of  a  little 
flower  which  she  had  never  seen  before.  It  was  very  beau- 
tiful. It  grew  so  far  out  over  the  abyss  that  she  had  at 
once  understood  that  it  would  be  hard  to  reach,  but  she 
could  not  turn  her  eyes  from  it,  and  her  heart  beat  loudly 
with5  longing  to  pick6  it. 

Then2  she  crept  cautiously  on  [her]  hands  and  feet 
out  towards  the  abyss  to  pick  the  flower.  She  was  already4 
so  close  to  it7  that  she  was  extending  her  hand  to  take  it, 
but  then  her  foot  slipped,  and  she  fell.  When  she  regained 
consciousness8,  she  found  herself  lying  with  [a]  broken 
hip-bone. 

"And  now,"  she  said  to  Violanta,  "I  cannot  even  pick 
the  flowers  in  my  own  orchard.  But  you,  who  are  young 
and  healthy,  you  can  climb  up  to  the  heights9  I  cannot 
reach,  and  press  into  the  thickets  where  I  have  never 
been.  You  shall  fetch  me  the  most  hidden  flowers9, 

1  Acute  accent.  7  So  close  to  it  den  sa  nara. 

2  Sa.  8  Ater  kotn  till    medvetande. 

3  Hade  varit  henne  for  tat.  9  Use    prepositive,    but     no    post- 
4-  Place  first  in  the  clause.  positive,  article.     Look  for  other  (un- 
.".   AY.  designated)  cases  of  this   kind  in  this 
0   Att  fa  plocka.  exercise. 


226      RELATIVE  AND  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS    XXIII 

the  most  beautiful  butterflies,  and  then  I  shall  tell  you 
the  most  wonderful  things  about  them.  You  don't  dream 
of  the  secrets  that  are  written  in  the  smallest  little 
stone;  every  flower  has  its  own  word  to  say." 

Violanta  listened  to  the  fair  lady.  Her  voice  was  so  soft, 
and  her  eyes  so  beaming,  and  around  her  resting-place  the 
violets  smelled  so  sweetly.  "Yes,"  said  Violanta,  "I  want 
to  stay  here  with  you.  But  what  shall  I  call  you  ?  I  don't 
know  what  your  name  is1."  —  "Call  me  Penserosa,"  said 
the  stranger. 

And  so  Violanta  entered  the  service  of2  beautiful 
Penserosa.  And  everything  that  she  found  on  her  wander- 
ing she  had  to  bring  home.  Then  Penserosa  told  Violanta 
with  beaming  eyes  about  everything  she  had  found.  It  was 
as  if  the  flowers  which  she  had  picked  and  which  already 
began  to  wither,  again  became  fresh*  and  told  about  the 
place  where  they  had  grown,  and  about  everything  they 
had  seen  and  heard  from  the  moment  they  peeped  forth  out 
of  the  earth.  The  dead  butterflies  again  became  living. 
The  very  stones  muttered  words  which  Penserosa  could 
understand  and  explain.  Everything  in  nature  became 
so  new  and  wonderful. 


1  Vad  du  heter.  2  Kom  i  tjanst  he 


XXIV  INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS  227 

LESSON   XXIV. 
INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS.1 

292.  Nagon,  n.  nagoP,  plur.   nagra,  some,  some    one3, 
something,  any4,  any  one,  anything,  a  few.    Nagon  is  used 
either  as  adjective  or  noun.     Gen.  ndgons,  ndgras.**   Ex.: 
Nagon  visslade.  Some  one  whistled.    Jag gav gossen  nagra 
slantar.  I  gave  the  boy  a  few  pennies.  Har  han  nag  on  Tan? 
Has  he  any  friend?  Nej,  han  haricke  nagon.  No,  he  hasn't 
any.     Ndgra  av  mina  vanner  ha  varit  hdr  i  eftermiddag. 
Some  of  my  friends  have  been  here  this  afternoon.    Har  du 
nagot  nytt  att  berat'ta  9    Have  you    anything  new  to  tell? 
Alt  ingenting  saga  ar  battre  an  att  saga  nagot  dumt.   It  is  bet- 
ter  to  say  nothing  than  to  say  something  foolish.       For 
further  examples  see  §  294. 

Note.  —  Concerning  n&gondera   see  §  306;  concerning  ndgonting 
see  §  307. 

293.  Ingen6,  n.  inteP,  plur.  inga,  no,  no  one,  nothing. 
It  is  used  either  as  adjective  or  noun.   Gen.  ingens.  In  place 
of  ingen,  icke  nagon  may  generally  be  used;  in  some  cases, 
however,  especially  at  the  beginning  of  a  clause,  ingen  must 
be   employed.     Ex.:    Ingen   vet,  vart  han  gick.     No   one 
knows  where  he  went.     Ingen  regel  utan  undantag.     No 
rule  without  exceptions.  Han  ar  ingen  forfai'tare,  men  han 

\  For  convenience,  some  words  and  uses  not  strictly  indefinite  in  mean- 
ing have  been  here  included. 

2  On  the  substitution  of  t  for  «  in  the  neuter,  cf.  §§  3O;  151,  1,  and  page 
93,  foot-note.— Notice  the  form  intet  (not  ineet);  see  §31 1,1. 

3  On  the  use  of  "one"  in  English  in  the  case  of  adjectival  words  used  sub- 
stantively,    see   §§    150;    305,    note  1.     Note  also  the  addition  of  "-thing"  in 
"something",  etc. 

4  English  uses  "any"  primarily  in  interrogative,  negative  and  conditional 
clauses. 

5  Only  the   genitives  in  fairly  frequent  use  are  given  here  and  below.     If 
the    genitive   is   not   given    (;isin  this  case  the  neuter  nagots),  it  means  that 
the  omitted  form(s)  are  either  not.used.  or  used  only  rarely.     On  the  use  of 
the  genitive  see  $  56. 

G  Concerning  word-order  see  §  141,  and  §  142,  note. 


228  INDEFINITE  I'RONOrNS 

iviskar  bli  dct.  He  is  not  an  author,  but  he  wants  to 
become  one.  Gosscn  liar  inga  biommor  krar.  The  boy  has 
no  flowers  left.  Ingcns  nisiktcr  roro  battrc  an  bans.  No 
one's  prospects  were  better  than  his.  For  further  examples 
see  §  294. 

Note.  —  Concerning  ingc.ndcra  see   §  306;  concerning  jn 
see  §  307. 

294.  Annan,  n.  annat1,  plur.  and  def.  andra 
other,  else  (this  meaning  frequently  after  nag  on,  /; 
It  is  used  either  as  adjective  or  noun.  Gen.  annans, 
Ex.:  Vill  du  ha  den  andra  ha f fen ?  Do  you  want  the  other 
hat?  Han  bar  i  dt  annat  hits  ni(.  He  lives  in  another 
house  now.  Skulle  vi  ickc  tola  om  nagot  annat?  Should  we 
not  talk  about  something  else  ?  Jngcn  annan  rar  hcninia. 
No  one  else  was  at  home.  Ar  dctta  bord  stori  nog,  cllcr  ;•/// 
du  ha  dt  annat?  Is  this  table  large  enough,  or  do  you 
want  another?  Hans  forst&n'd  rar  lika  gott  som  nagon 
annans.  His  mind  was  just  as  good  as  any  one  else's. 
Numcra  harskar  en  licit  annan  mcning  bland  sprakforsk- 
arna.  Now  an  entirety  different  opinion  prevails  among 
philologists.  Dessa  ord  bcty'da  nagot  licit  annat.  These 
words  have  an  entirely  different  meaning.  Intct  av 
dcssa  ord  /iar,  sd  z'itt  man  rr/,  nagot  ctymolo ghkt  sam- 
inanliang  mcd  nagot  av  de  andra.  None  of  these  words 
has,  as  far  as  is  known,  an}-  etymological  connection  with 
any  of  the  others.  For  further  illustrations  see  §  305. 

Note.  —  i.  Observe  that  Eng.  "another"  means  either  "a  differ- 
ent (one)"  or  "one  more".  Swedish  en  annan  means  "another" 
only  in  the  sense  of  "a  different  (one)". 

2.  Various  expressions  connected  with  annan:  en  och  an'nan,  n. 
ett  och  an'naf,  a  few,  some,  some  few,  something,  one  or  two 
things;  en  cllcr  an'nan,  :i.  cit  cllcr  an'nat,  some  one  or  other, 

1  Cf.  page  227,  foot-note  2. 

2  On   the   use   of  -c,    cf.    §  151.  S,  b  and  c.     The  same  reference  applies  to 
similar  cases  in  other  pronouns  below. 


XXIV  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  229 

something  or  other.  These  have  a  (rare)  genitive  when  used  sub- 
stantively,  en  och  an' nans,  en  eller  an'nans.  Ex.:  Vit  sprdkade  om 
ett  och  annat.  We  talked  about  various  things.  En  och  annan 
gang  a  few  times.  Han  var  frdnvarande  av  en  eller  annan  an- 
ledning.  He  was  absent  from  one  cause  or  another. — On  varari- 
nan  see  §  295,  note  2.—Andra  (-e)  is  also  used  as  an  ordinal  nu- 
meral; see  §§  312;  318. — On  the  reciprocal  varan'dra  see  §  264, 
note  8. 

295.  Var,  n.  vart,  each,  every.  Var  is  used  almost  only 
as  an  adjective,  modifying  nouns  in  the  singular.  The  cor- 
responding noun  is  enva'r,  n.  ettva'rtl(ra.r&)  or  var  och. 
en',  n.  vart  och  et't;  sometimes  also  en  och  va'r,  n.  ett  och  va'rt1 
is  used.  Gen.  enva'rs,  va'rs  och  en's.  Ex.:  Var  har  sin  sed. 
Each  one  has  his  own  way.  Var  gang  jag  kommer  dit 
every  time  I  go  there.  De  resa  till  Euro' pa  vart  dr.  They 
go  to  Europe  every  year.  Enva'r  vill  bliva  gammal,  men 
ingen  vill  vara  det.  Everyone  wants  to  become  old,  but 
no  one  wants  to  be  old.  Det  vet  var  och  en.  Everyone 
knows  that.  Var  och  en  av  pojkarna  fick  berdfta  en  histo'- 
ria.  Each  of  the  boys  had  to  tell  a  story.  Denna  ar 
Idmpad  efter  vars  och  ens  smak  och  lynne.  This  is  suited 
to  each  one's  taste  and  disposition. 

Note.  —  i.  Observe  the  expressions  var  sin,  n.  var  sitt,  plur. 
var  sina.  Ex.:  Vi  Jingo  var  sift  apple.  We  got  each  an  apple. 
Jag  gav  gossarna  var  sitt  apple.  I  gave  the  boys  each  an  apple. 
De  sutto  pd  var  sin  sida  av  bordet.  They  were  sitting  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  table.  De  gingo  dt  var  sitt  hall.  They  parted 
(went  in  opposite,  different,  directions). 

2.  Varan'nan,n.  vartan'nat,  means  "every other'',  "every second". 
So  var   tre'dje,   n.  vart  tre'dje,    every   third;  var  fja'rde,    n.    vart 
fja'rde,  every   fourth,  etc.     In    the   substantive   use,  -s  is  added  in 
the  genitive.     Ex.:   Bdten   gar   varan' nan    dag.     The   boat   leaves 
every  other  day.  —  On  varan'dra    see  §  264,  note  8.  —  Concerning 
vardera  see  §  306. 

3.  Varen'da,  n.  varten'da,  every,  every  one.  It  is  used  as  a  (singu- 
lar) adjective.     For  the  corresponding  noun,  en,  n.  ett,  is  added. 

1   Or  the  vowel  may  be  short,  cttvar't,  ett  <xk  vaSt. 


230  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  XXIV 

296.  Varje   every,    each,    indeclinable  adjective1,  used 
with    noun^    in    the    singular.      Ex.:    Varje  gata   ar  lika 
-vacker  som  denna.     Every  street  is  just  as  beautiful  as  this 
one.    Han  stannade  vid  -varje  hus.      He  stopped  at  every 
house.    Varje  sarskilt  fall  each  individual  case. 

297.  All,  n.  allt,  plur.  alia,  all.    This  may  be  used  sub- 
stantively  only  in  the  neuter  singular  and  in  the  plural. 
Gen.    (plur.)  alias.     When   Eng.   "all"  means  "whole", 
it    must   generally   be    rendered  by  heP  in  Swedish,  but 
sometimes   by  all.     Ex.:   Han    talade   om'    allt.      He  told- 
everything.    All  mjblk  ar  vit.     All    milk    is    white.    Alia 
blevo  sjuka.     All    became    sick.    AH  (or  hela~)  varldcn  tr/ 
det.     All  the  world   knows  that.     Av  allt   (or   hela")  mitt 
hjarta  with    all  my    heart;  pa  allt  satt   in  every  way;  en 
gang  for  alia  once  for  all. 

Note.  —  Concerning  all  ting  see  §  307. 

298-  Mdngen,  n.  mangel,  plur.  manga,  many  a,  many. 
This  is  used  either  as  adjective  or  noun.  Gen.  mangens^ 
mangas.  Ex. :  Mangen  gang  many  a  time.  Manga  av  gossar- 
na  voro  trbtta.  Many  of  the  boys  were  tired.  Det  bbr  /if/a: 
"Han  ar  stbrre  an  jag,"  men  mangen  sager:  "an  mig." 
One  should  say,  "He  is  larger  than  I,"  but  many  a  one 
says,  "than  me."  Mangen  yngling  drbmmer  om  bragder. 
Many  a  youth  dreams  of  achievements.  /  alhnanhet  kan 
-under  samtal  mera  utelamnas  an  i  skrift,  som  skall  komma 
inf or  mangas  bgon.  More  can  usually  be  omitted  in  con- 
versation than  in  writing,  which  is  intended  to  come 
before  the  eyes  of  many.  Enligt  mangas  uttal  accord- 
ing to  the  pronunciation  of  many. 

Flera  (-<?)  more,  several  (when  there  is  no  idea  of 
comparison).  In  the  meaning  "more"  there  is  also  a 

1  Rarely  used  as  noun:  litet  av  varje  a  little  of  everything. 

2  Cf.  §  149,  note. 

3  See  page  227,  foot-note  2. 


XXIV  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  231 

shorter  form  fler.  Flera  is  comparative  of  manga.  Gen. 
fieras,  fleres.  Ex.:  Han  gjorde  delta  pa  fleras  bega'ran. 
He  did  this  at  the  request  of  several.  Flera  fartyg  hava 
anlant.  Several  vessels  have  arrived. 

Fiesta  (-£•)  most,  the  majority,  is  the  superlative  of 
manga.  Gen.  -s.  A  noun  following  fiesta  is  indefinite 
in  form  when  there  is  no  idea  of  comparison;  otherwise 
it  has  definite  form.  Ex.:  De  fiesta  voro  redan  g&ngna. 
Most  of  them  were  already  gone.  De  fiesta  tala  mycket 
mera  ologiskt  an  de  sjalva  tro.  Most  people  speak  much 
more  illogically  than  they  themselves  think.  De  fiesta 
ittanniskor  anse  sig  ha  alldeles  tillrackligt  reda  pa  sitt  mo- 
dersmal.  Most  people  consider  themselves  sufficiently 
familiar  with  their  native  language.  De  fiesta  fallen  av 
sjukdomen  ha  intraffat  pa  Kungshohnen.  Most  of  the  cases 
of  the  disease  have  occurred  in  K.  Jag  hoppas,  att  mina 
uppgifter  i  de  fiesta  fall  skola  befin'nas  korrek'ta.  I  hope 
that  my  statements  will  in  most  cases  be  found  correct. 

299.  Fa  few,  indeclinable  plural.  Fa  is  used  either  as  ad- 
jective or  noun.     Note  the  expression  nagra  fa  a  few.    The 
comparative  isfdrre.    Ex.:  Fa  veta  del,  och  iznnu  farre borde 
veta  det.     Few  know  it  and  still  fewer  ought  to  know  it. 

300.  Bada,    bagge,    both,    used    either  as   adjectives 
or  nouns.    Gen.  -s.  When  bada  and  bagge  are  used  as  adjec- 
tives, the  accompanying  noun  practically  always  has  definite 
form,  unless  a  demonstrative  or  possessive  pronoun,  or  a 
genitive,  is  used  in  connection  with  the  noun.     They  are 
often    followed  by  tva  for  emphasis.    Ex. :  Bada  gossarna 
spr ungo  bort.  Both  the  boys  ran  away.  De  voro  bada  gamla. 
They  were    both  old.     Bada  tva  kommo  for  tidigt.     Both 
of  them  came  too  early.    Bagge   dessa  foran' dringar  both 
of     these    changes;     bada    dessa   fragor    both    of     these 
questions. 


232  INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS  XXIV 

Bada  and  bdgge  are  rendered  into  English  by  "two" 
when  they  have  the  position  and  construction  of  definite 
adjectives,  that  is,  when  they  stand  between  the  pre- 
positive def.  article  and  a  noun  in  the  def.  form,  or 
between  a  genitive,  possessive  pronoun  or  demonstrative 
pronoun  and  a  noun  in  the  indef.  form.  Ex.:  De  b&da 
gossarna  dro  brbder.  The  two  boys  are  brothers.  Hen- 
nes  kvarlevande  bada  systrar  Bernhardi'na  och  Wilhelmi' na 
dro  respekti've  82  (read  attitva'}  och  80  (read  &ttw)  dr. 
Her  two  surviving  sisters  B.  and  W.  are  82  and  80  years 
old,  respectively.  De  bada  foreg&ende  kapiflen  the  two 
preceding  chapters;  de  bdgge  forsta  ordningstalen  the  two 
first  ordinals;  dessa  bada  gravar  these  two  graves;  m  bada 
(cf.  page  91,  foot-note  2)  we  two;  en  av  de  bdgge  (cf. 
§  150,  end)  one  of  the  two. 

Note.  —  Concerning  bddadera,  baggedera,  see  §  306. 

301.  Somlig,  n.    somligt    (also    somt},     plur.    somliga, 
some.  Gen.  somligas.    It  is  used  either  as  adjective  or  sub- 
stantive.    The  singular  is  used  almost  only  with  names 
of    materials  and  with  abstract  nouns.     Ex. :   Somligt  vin 
dr  ndstan  vitt.    Some  wine  is  almost  white.     Somliga  voro 

for  stora.  Some  were  too  large.  Somliga  mdnniskor  bli 
formd'gna  utan  att  arbeta.  Some  people  become  wealthy 
without  working.  AH  Idsa  somlig  skdnlitteratur  kan  i  vissa 
avseenden  jdmforas  med  att  drbmma.  The  reading  of  some 
literature  can  in  certain  respects  be  compared  with 
dreaming. 

302.  Enda  (_-e)  only,   only  one.     This  has  the  regular 
definite  form.  It  is  used  either  as  adjective  or  substantive; 
as  a  substantive  it  is  always  preceded  by  the  indefinite  or 
definite  article.  Gen.  -s.    Ex.:  Detta  dr  den  enda  stolen,  som 
dr  kvar.  This  is  the  only  chair  that  is  left.  En  enda  son  an 
only  son.  Han  dr  enda  sonen.  He  is  the  only  son.   Hanfick 
icke  en  enda.     He  did  not  get  a  single  one.    De  voro  deenda, 


XXIV  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  233 

som  icke  kommo.     They  were  the  only  ones  who  did  not 
come. 

303.  Egen,  n.  eg-ef1,  plur.  egna,  own;  only  the  indefinite 
form  is  used  in  this  meaning;  see  examples,  §  147,  note. 
Swedish  egen,  while  usually  preceded  by  a  genitive  or  a 
possessive    pronoun    as    the    English    "own",    frequently 
stands  alone,  a  use  which  in  English  is  rare  and  archaic. 
Ex.:  Jag  talar  av  egen  erfarenhet.    I  speak  from  personal 
experience.    Han  bor  i  eget  hus.     He  lives  in  a  house  of 
his   own.     Jag  har  sett  det  med  egna  bgon.    I  have  seen 
it   with    my    own   eyes.     De    lappar,  som  icke  hava   egna 
renar,  bitrada  dem,  som  hava  sadana.    The  Laps  who  do 
not    have    reindeer    of    their   own,  assist    those   who  do. 
Manniskorna   varde'ra  det  frdmmande  mycket  mera  an  det 
egna.     People  value    that   which    is   foreign  much   more 
than  what  they  themselves  have. 

304.  Man 2  one,  we,  you,  they,  people.  Singular.  It  is  used 
only  substantively,  as  subject.  When  Swedish  has  man  fol- 
lowed by  a  transitive  verb,  English  often  uses  a  passive 
construction.    For  the  objective  relation,  the  pronoun  en3 
is   used,  and  for  the  genitive,  enss.    The  reflexive  is  sig, 
and  the  reflexive  possessive,  sin  (see  §§  187  f.,  and  page 
122,  foot-note  2).    Ex.:  Man  kan  inte  gama  tiga,  nar  folk 
ljuger  pa  en,  i  syrinerhet  om  ens  vanner  bbrja  tro  pa  fbrta'- 
let.    One  can  not  very  well  remain  silent  when  people  lie 
about  one,  especially  if  one's  friends  begin   to  believe  the 
slander.   Man  bbr gbra  sitt  basta.    One  should  do  one's  best. 
Man    misstager   sig   latt.     People    easily   make    mistakes. 
Man  briikar  ropa  "Stig  in/" ,  narnagon  knackat pa  ens  dorr. 
It  is  customary  to  say  "Come",  wh^n  someone  has  rapped 
at  one's  door.     Man  vet  icke,  vad  som  kan  handaen.   You 

1  See  page  227,  foot-note  2. 

2  Used  less  extensively  than  "man"  in  German. 

3  These  have  something  of  a  colloquial  coloring;  cf.  §  311,  3  end. 


234  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  XXIV 

don't  know  what  may  happen  to  you.  See  also  §  221, 
note  4. 

305-  Den  ena(-*),n.  det  ena,  the  one.  This  is  used  either 
as  adjective  or  noun.  Gen.  -s.  Den  ena  sdva'l  som  den  andra 
one  as  well  as  the  other.  Han  gick  fran  den  ena  till  den 
andra.  He  went  from  one  to  the  other.  Den  ena  gossen  var 
lat,  den  andra  flitig.  One  of  the  boys  was  lazy,  the  other 
industrious. —  Concerning  en  see  §  304. 

Note.  —  i.  In  using  adjectives  as  nouns,  Swedish  does  not  add 
en,  corresponding  to  the  English  use  of  "one";  as,  "this  is  a  good 
one",  "anyone",  "this  one".  See  §  150. 

2.  On  the  interrogative  v ad  for  en  see  §  286. — On  en  as  numeral 
see  §  312.— On  en  och  annan,  en  eller  annan,  see  §  294,  note  2. 

306.  Compounds  with  -dera1: 

endera,  n.  ettdera,  either,  one  of  them 
nagondera,  n.  nagotdera,  either,  one  or  other 
ingendera,  n.  intetdera,  neither 
vardera,  n.  vartdcra,  each 
baggedera,  badadera  (more  rare),  both 
These  are  generally  used  as  nouns;  they  have  the  reg- 
ular genitive,  enderas,  ingenderas,  etc.    When  they  are  em- 
ployed as  adjectives,  the  following  noun  has  definite  form. 
They  refer  to  certain  definitely  known  objects,  very  often, 
but  not  always  (except  for    baggedera,  badaderd)   two  in 
number.      Ex.:    /  Ame'rika  sokte   de   lycka  och  guld,  men 
funno   intetdera.     They    sought     happiness    and    gold    in 
America,  but    found   neither.     Inom  vardera  av  dessa  tre 
kategori'er  erhallas  tre  underavdelningar.    In  each  of  these 
three  categories  there  are  three  subdivisions.    Har  behan'd- 
las  varidera  av  dessa  bada  fall  sarskilt  for  sig .  Each  of  these 
two  cases  is  here  treated  by  itself.     Vartdera  av  dessa  fyra 
uttryck  each  of  these  four  expressions.      Om    AB   icke  ar 

1   Cf.  vilkendera.  §  287.— Etymologically,  -dera  means  "of  them". 


XXIV  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  235 

=  (read  lika  med}  AC,  sd  maste  endera  vara  stdrre.  If  AB 
is  not  equal  to  AC,  one  of  them  must  be  the  larger.  Stun- 
dom  star  etidera  objek'tet  frdmst  i  satsen.  Sometimes  one  of 
the  objects  is  placed  first  in  the  clause.  Latom  oss  skarskada 
vartdera  slag et  for  sig.  L,et  us  examine  each  kind  by  itself. 
Differen'sen  i  frag  a  om  ljud  eller  bety'delse  eller  badadera 
ar  our spr ung lig .  The  difference  in  regard  to  sound  or 
meaning,  or  both  of  these,  is  not  original.  Ingendera 
kan  klaga.  Neither  can  complain.  N&gondera  kommer  val. 
One  of  them  will  come,  no  doubt. 

307-  Compounds   of    -ting:  nagonting  something,   any- 
thing; ingenting1  nothing;    allting  everything.     They  are 
used  only  substantively,  as  neuter  singulars.     Ex.:  Han 
sade  ingenting.     He  said  nothing.    Att  ingenting  saga  ar 
bdttre  an  att  saga  nagot  dumt.    It  is  better  to  say  nothing 
than  to  say  something  foolish.     Har   dr  nagonting  gott. 
Here  is  something  good. 

308-  The  interrogative  pronouns  (see  §  282)  followed 
by  som  heist  are  used  as  indefinite  pronouns.   When  they 
are   used    adjectively,    the   noun    which    they   modify   is 
placed    between  the  interrogative  pronoun  and  som  heist; 
as,  vilkcn  gosse  som  heist  any  boy.    Ex.:  Det  kan  vem  som 
heist  gbra.    Any  one  can  do  that.    Du  far  taga  vilken  bok 
som  heist.  You  may  take  any  book.     Vadretma  bliva  huru- 
dant  som  heist.    No  matter  what  the  weather  may  be. 

Note.  —  The  indefinite  pronouns  ndgon  and  ingen  may  also  be 
followed  by  som  heist:  ndgon  som  heist  any  (one)  at  all,  ingen 
som  heist  no  (one)  at  all. 

309.  The  interrogative  pronouns  may  also  be  used  as 
indefinite  relatives2,  either  alone  or  followed  by  an  or  heist. 
When  they  stand  in  the  subject  relation,  som  is  added 

1  Concerning  word-order,  cf.  page  227,  foot-note  6. 

2  In  this  use  the  pronouns  are  stressed,  but  not  -when  used  as  interroga- 
tives.   When  'dn,  heist  follow,  however,  these  are  sometimes  stressed  instead. 


236  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  XXIV 

(cf.  §§  278;  289,  i).  Ex.:  Bega'r,  vad  du  vilL  Ask  what- 
ever you  wish.  De  valde,  vein  de  ville,  till  homing.  They 
chose  as  king  whomever  they  wished.  Vilken  vag  dii  an 
far,  sa  blir  resan  trevlig.  Whatever  way  you  go,  the 
journey  will  be  pleasant.  Jag  kommer  att  resa,  hurudant 
vadret  an  blir.  I  shall  go,  whatever  the  weather  will  be. 
Vem  som  har  gjort  det,  sa  bbr  han  straffas.  Whoever  has 
done  it,  he  should  be  punished.  De  ofredade,  vem  de  matte. 
They  molested  whomever  they  met.  Han  hade  standig 
framgdng,  vad  heist  han  tog  sig  for.  Whatever  he  under- 
took, he  had  constant  success. 

310.  ACCENT:    Allting  has  the  acute  accent. — Andra 
usually  has  the  grave  accent. 

311.  COLLOQUIALISMS:     (i)    In    the   spoken    language 
the  form  inget  is  used  as    the  neuter  of   ingen,  in  place 
of  the  written  intet. 

(2)  The  indefinite  pronouns  enva'r,  en  och  var,  varje,  bag- 
gedera,   badadera  and  bada  (but  not  bdgge)  belong  prima- 
rily to  the  written  language. 

(3)  In  the  spoken  language,  de1  they,  is  very  often  used 
instead  of  man.  Ex.:  De  sager,  att  han  har  rest  till Ame'rika. 
They  say  that  he  has  gone  to  America. — En  may  in  easy 
speech  be  used  in  place  of  man,  that  is  also  as  subject,  but 
this  use  is  rather  dialectical.  Ex.:  En*  vet  inte,  hur  en  ska' 
fa  varmt  i  rummena,  nar  de1  a?  sa  kallt  ute.     One  doesn't 
know   how   to   get   the   rooms    warm    when   it's  so  cold 
outside. 

(4)  In   the   spoken    language,  the    singular  mangen  is 
not  employed  except  in  proverbs. 

(5)  In  easy  speech,  nagon  and  annan  may  be  shortened 
to  n&n,  ami,  nagot  to  nat.     So    nagonting    becomes   nan- 

\   Pronounced  di  (see  §  53,  5).    Also  doin  (=  dan}  may  be  used. 

2  En  may  include  the  speaker,  which  de  does  only  very  exceptionally. 


XXIV  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  237 

ting.  Cf.  §  273,  ii.  Ex.:  En  ann  a1  s&  go1  som  en  ann. 
One  man's  as  good  as  another. — In  Central  Sweden,  n&got 
may  in  easy  speech  be  pronounced  n&ge. 

EXERCISE  XXIV. 

Violanta  never  grew  weary  of  sitting1  at  Penserosa's 
feet  and  listening  to  the  words  of  wisdom  that  passed 
out  from  her  mouth.  The  longer  Violanta  lived  there, 
the  more  she  liked  to  be  there.  She  wanted  to  become 
acquainted  with2  all  the  secrets  of  nature,  and  for  that3 
a  whole  life-time  was  not  long  enough4. 

Summer  passed  like  a  single  day  of  sunshine.  Then 
one  evening  an  icy  cold  breeze  blew  over  the  river,  and 
the  first  withered  leaves  came  whirling  down  from  the 
chestnut-trees,  "Oh,"  said  Penserosa  and  sighed,  "that 
was  the  first  greeting  of  winter.  Now  it  will  soon  drive5 
us  away  from  here.  Now  the  storks  and  swallows  and 
ducks  will  fly5  away,  but  you,  Violanta,  you  will  always 
stay5  with  me,  won't  you6?" — "'Always',  that  is  a  hard 
word,"  answered  Violanta.  "I'll  promise5  nothing." — 
"In  that7  you  do  right,"  said  Penserosa  and  looked 
grave.  "For  you  would  not  keep  it." 

Violanta  became  red  in  her  face.  For,  to  be  sure8,  one 
can  say  such  things  about  one's  self,  but  one  doesn't  like 
to  hear  others  say  them.  "Why  don't  you  think  that  I 
would  keep  my  promise?"  asked  Violanta. — "I  [can]  see 
that  by9  your  eyes" ,  answered  Penserosa,  and  looked  deep 
into  her  eyes.10  "In  there11  are12  all  the  wild  waves  of  the 

1  See  §  242,  2  a.  7   Adverbial     compound;     cf.  foot 

2  Become  acQ.  -with  lara  kanna.  note   3. 

3  Dartill.  8    To  be  sure  nog. 

4  H'as  long  enough  rack  te.  9    Pa. 

5  \VhattenseinSwedish?  See            10   Sag  henne  djupt  i  ogonen. 
§135.  31    Darinne.    See  foot-notes  3  and  7. 

6  Use  "val".  12   Ga. 


238  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  XXIV 

sea." — "The  wild  waves  of  the  sea.  The  wild  waves  of 
the  sea,"  sang1  the  forest  above  her  head.  "All  the  wild 
waves  of  the  sea.  All  the  wild  waves  of  the  sea,"  roared  l 
the  river  at  her  feet.  —  "Oh,  yes,"  sighed  Violanta, 
"the  wild  waves  of  the  sea.  It  is  to  them  [that]  I  long  [to 
go]  .2  If  I  could  only  get  to  see3  them  once.  I  want  to 
see  them.  I  want  to  reach  them,  all  the  wild  waves  of  the 
sea." 

When  Violanta  awoke  [the]  next  morning4  there  was  a 
storm5.  She  dressed  quickly  and  ran  out.  The  storm 
took  hold  of6  her  dress,  lifted  her  like  a  leaf,  and  she 
whirled  over  the  plain  into  the  forest.  "The  wild  waves  of 
the  sea,"  roared1  the  forest.  "The  wild  waves  of  the  sea," 
stormed1  the  river.  She  flew  onward  like  a  wild  swan  with 
her  veil  fluttering  like  wings  behind  her.  From  the  forest 
she  came  out  upon  the  open  heath  where  there  grew  neither 
trees  nor  bushes,  and  there  she  went5  along  with  double 
speed.  The  storm  carried  her  onward,  nearer  and  nearer 
to  the  sea.  Her  feet  scarcely  touched  the  ground,  and  she 
could  no  longer  breathe.  All  of  a  sudden  a  blast  of  wind 
threw  her  down,  and  she  lay7  under  a  ridge  of  sand,  un- 
conscious. 


1    Use    impersot 


river,  etc.  stormed,  it  went. 

2  See  §  264,  note  3.  6    Took  hold  of  tog  i. 

3  Get  to  see  f&  se.  7   Blev  liggande;  see  §  250,  note  1, 


XXV 


NUMERALS 


239 


LESSON   XXV. 


NUMERALS. 

312.    CARDINALS 

ORDINALS 

i.  01,  n.  ctt,  one 

Jbrsta  (-e)  first 

2.    tl'd   (t'COlHC,  til} 

andrcP  {-e} 

3.  tre  (trenne*) 

tredje 

4.  fyra 

fjarde 

5-  fem 

femte 

6.  sex 

sjette 

7-  sju 

sjunde 

8.  a/Ya 

dttonde 

9  .   «  /0 

nionde 

10.  tio 

tionde 

II.    ^/Z'# 

elfte 

12.   /o/z; 

tolfte 

13.  tretton 

trettonde 

14.  fjorton 

fjortonde 

15.  femton 

fein  tonde 

1  6.  sexton 

sextonde 

17.  sj  ut  ton 

sjuttonde 

1  8.  aderton 

adertonde 

19.   nitton 

nit  tonde 

20.  tjugii,  tjugo 

tjugonde 

21.  /Jug-uen'1,  n.  tjuguet't 

tjugiifbr1  sta  (-<?) 

22.    tjUglltvA' 

tjuguan'  dra  (-^) 

30.  tret  tio,  tretti 

trettionde 

31.  tretti(o)eri  >  n.  /r<?/- 

tretti(o^)fdr/sta 

40.  fyrtio,  fyrti^ 

fyrtionde  - 

50.  fcmtio^femti 

femtionde 

1    Or,  tjugoen'.  tjugotva'  ,  etc. 

2   Pronounced  fdrti,  fortionde. 

3   Cf.  §  294. 

240  NUMERALS 

60.  sextio,  sexti  sextionde 

70.  sjuttio,  sjutti  sjuttionde 

80.  attio,  atti  Attionde 

90.  nittio,  nitti  nittionde 

100.  O//)  Jmndra  hundrade 

101.  hundra  en,  n.  hun-  hundrajbr1  sta 

dra  ett 

200.  tva  hundra  tva  hundrade 

211.  tva  hundra  elva  tva  hundra  elfte 

1,000.   {ett}  tusen  tusende 

1,165.  ett  tusen  ett  hundra         ett  tusen  ett  hundra    sex- 
sex  ti  (  o  }fem  ti  (  o)/em  te 
1,000,000.  en  millio'n 
2,000,000.  tva  millio'ner 

REMARKS  ON  THE  CARDINALS.1 

313.  When  used  as    adjectives  the   cardinals  are  inde- 
clinable, except    that    en  has   the   neuter    ett.     This    is 
declined    also    in    compound    numerals.      Ex.:    en    gosse 
one    boy,  ett   bord   one    table,   tretti(o~)eft   ar  och  tjiiguen' 
dagar  thirty-one  years  and  twenty-one  days. 

When  occasionally  employed  as  nouns,  cardinals  have  the 
usual  genitive  in  -s;  as,  de  Adertons  beslu't  the  decision  of 
the  Eighteen  (of  the  Swedish  Academy).  Det  ar  ej  ens 
skull,  att  tva  trata.  It  is  not  the  fault  of  one  that  two 
quarrel. 

Note.  —  When  hundra  and  tusen  are  used  as  nouns,  they  may 
also  have  the  forms  hundrade  and  tusende,  which  are  neuters  of 
the  Fourth  Declension;  these  are  in  ordinary  style  used  chiefly 
in  the  definite  form;  as,  det  forsta  tusendet  the  first  thousand. 

314.  Tvenne  and  trenne  are  not  infrequently  employed 
in  place  of  tva  and  tre,  but  they  never  occur  in  compound 

1   See  also  page  92,  foot-note  4. 


XXV  NUMERALS'  241 

numerals;  as,  tvenne  (or  tva}  ganger  two  times,  but  only 
tjugutva* .  I  vardera  av  dessa  tre  orter  har  jag  tillbragt 
omkring'  tvenne  drtionden.  In  each  of  these  three  places 
I  have  spent  about  two  decades. 

Tu  is  in  certain  expressions  used  in  place  of  tv&;  as, 
pa  tu  man  hand  in  private,  alone;  de  unga  tu  the  young 
couple;  det  ar  icke  tu  tal  om  den  saken  there  is  no  doubt 
about  that  matter;  ett  tu  tre1  suddenly;  ett}  tu,  tre,  used 
in  counting  before  something  is  to  happen;  klockan  ar  tu 
(or  tvdi)  (tu  in  this  case  not  used  in  Gotaland)  it  is  two 
o'clock.  Cf.  the  adverb  itu'  in  two,  in  pieces;  as,  skara 
itu'  cut  in  two;  ga  itu'  break  (intr.). 

Note.  —  Concerning  bdda,  bagge,  see  §  300. 

315.  Tretti,  fyrti,  etc.,  for  trettio,  fyrtio,  etc.,  are  used 
freely;  except  in  the  elevated  style;  in  compound  numer- 
als the  shorter  form  is  particularly  frequent;  as,  trettien' , 
fyrtitre' .  So  also  in  the  case  of  ordinals;  as,  trettifdr1 ' sta , 
fyrtitre'dje. 

316  Hundra  and  tusen  are  usually  preceded  by  ett  ex- 
cept in  counting.  Before  hundra,  however,  ett  may  be 
omitted  at  the  beginning  of  a  compound  numeral;  as,  ett 
hundra  en  or  hundra  en,  but  always  ett  tusen  ett  hundra  en. 

Och  is  not  employed  to  connect  hundreds  with  tens. 

317-  Cardinals   are   in   certain   cases   used  after  nouns 
where   ordinals   followed    by    the    noun    would   be   more 
natural,  as  in  English;   as,  sid.  8  (read  sidan  atta,  or  sid 
atta)  page  8;  ar  1913  (read  nitton  hundra  trettoii)  (in)    the 
year  1913;  kap.  7  (read  kapit'el  sju}  chapter  7. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  ORDINALS. 

318-  The  ordinals  forsta  (-e~)  and  andra  (-e~)  have  the 
form  of  weak  adjectives;    the  others  are  indeclinable  ad- 
jectives, ending  in  -<?/  cf.  §  153.    A  following  noun  always 


242  NUMERALS 

has  the  def.  form;  the  ordinals  are  also  generally  preceded 
by  the  prepositive  def.  article,  but  not  always;  see  §  149. 

When  used  as  nouns,  ordinals  have  the  usual  genitive 
in  -s;  as,  Karl  den  tolftes  bedrifter  the  feats  of  Charles 
the  Twelfth.  Den  tredjes  anforande  var  bast.  The  ad- 
dress of  the  third  speaker  was  best. 

Note.  —  i.  As  in  English,  only  the  last  member  of  a  compound 
numeral  is  an  ordinal;  as,  tjugufor'sta. 

2.  The  ordinals  are  sometimes  written  with  the  arabic  numeral 
alone,  sometimes  with  the  ending  indicated;  as,  den  7  juni  June  7, 
den  6:e,  den  2:0,  den  io:de,  den  i:sta,  3  pers.  sing. 

VARIOUS  FORMATIONS  CONNECTED   WITH 
NUMERALS. 

319-  FORMED  WITH  CARDINALS:  (i)  Once,  twice, 
etc.  For  these,  Swedish  employs  the  cardinal  with  gang 
time,  plur.  ganger;  as,  en  gang^,  tva  ganger,  tre  ganger. 

(2)  Simple,  double,  two-fold,  triple,  etc.  The  Swedish 
word  for  "simple"  is  enkel  (n.   enkelt,  plur.  enkld}-,   that 
for  "double"  is  dubbel  (n.    dubbelt,  plur.  dubbla}.    Above 
two2,  -dubbel,  or,  less  frequently,  -faldig   (n.   -/,  plur.   -a) 
is  added  to  the  cardinal;  as,  tredubbel  or  trefaldig,  fyrdubbel 
or  fyrfaldig. 

(3)  One  by  one,  by  twos,  eto.    Swedish  expresses  the 
distributive  idea  by  means  of  the  repeated  cardinal  with 
och   between,  or    by    adding  i  sander  to  the  cardinal;  as, 
tva  och  tva  or  tva  i  sander. 

(4)  Kinds  of.     Swedish  expresses  this  idea  by  means 
of  the  neuter  word  slag  kind,   with  an   added   -s;  as,   eft 
slags,  tva  slags,  tre  slags,  manga  slags. 

1  When  en  sang  means  "once",  "one  time",  en  has  more  stress  than  cane. 
When  gang  has  the  greater  stress,  this  phrase  means  "once  (upon  a  time)". 

2  Even  in  case  of  "two",  similar  compounds  may  be  used:    tvadubbel,   tva- 
faldig.     Enfaldig  is   not  equivalent   to   enkel.    but    means    "simple-minded", 
"foolish". 


XXV  NUMERALS  243 

(5)  Swedish  uses  tal  (n.)  number,  to  denote  the  decade 
or  century;  as,  8o-talet  the  eighties,  the  period  (18)80-89; 
i8oo-talet  the  nineteenth  century,  the  period   1800-1899. 

Tal  also  denotes  an  approximate  number;  as,  ett  tio- 
tal  about  ten. 

Tal  is  used  with  an  added  -s  in  a  few  expressions  like 
hundratah  hundreds  (of);  tusentah  thousands  (of);  as, 
hundratals  flugor  hundreds  of  flies. 

(6)  Names    of     the    numerals,    particularly     through 
"twelve",  are  formed  by  adding  to  the  cardinal  the  ending 
-a,  before  which  an  unstressed  vowel  is  dropped.     These 
are  nouns  of  the  First  Declension.    Ex.:  en  etta  a  figure  i, 
en  tvda,  en  fyra,  en  nia;  fyran  the  figure  4,  nian;  tva  treor 
two  threes.    Note  also*  en  femma  a  five-crown  bill;  en  tia 
a  ten-crown  bill;  en  femtia  a  fifty-crown  bill;    en   sexa    a 
light  supper.   Sjttttio fern' man  drfbrse'nad.   (Train)  number 
75  is  behind  time. 

320.  FORMED  WITH  ORDINALS,  (i)  First(ly),  second- 
(ly),  etc.  For  these  ideas  Swedish  uses  the  expressions 
for  det  fbrsta,for  det  andra,  etc. 

(2)  Fractions.  One-half  is  cnhalv.  Ex.:  Man  kan  ga 
en  hah  mil  pa  en  timme.  You  can  walk  half  a  mile  in 
an  hour.  Ett  halvt  apple  half  an  apple.  Note  also:  ti'd 
och  en  halv  timme  two  hours  and  a  half;  en  hah'timme 
half  an  hour. 

Denominators  above  two  are  formed  by  adding  del  part, 
plur.  delar,  to  the  ordinals;  as,  en  tredjedcla.  third,  tva  tred- 
jedelar  two  thirds,  en  fjdrdedel,  en  sjundedel.  In  the  case  of 
ordinals  ending  in  -onde,  -de  is  dropped  before  -del,  except 
in  the  elevated  style;  as,  en  at  ton  (^de^)  del,  en  nion{de}del,  en 
tretton(de}del;  so  also  in  hundra(de}del,  tusen^de^del. 

When  used  before  a  noun,  the  ending  -dels  is  added  to 
the  ordinal  both  in  the  singular  and  plural;  as,  ett  fjardc- 


244  NUMERALS  XXV 

dels  ar  a  quarter  of  a  year,  tre  fjardedels  ar  three  fourths 
of  a  year;  but  en  fjardedel  av  Aret  a  quarter  of  the  year, 
tre  fjardedelar  av  aret  three  fourths  of  the  year. 

Note.  —  i.  In  place  of  en  och  en  halv,  halvan'nan,  n.  halv(t}an'nat 
is  frequently  used;  so,  though  much  more  rarely,  halvtre'dje  for 
tvd  och  en  halv,  etc.  A  following  noun  is  put  in  the  singular. 

2.  In  place  of  fjardedel,  kvart  (5)  is  in  some  cases  employed; 
when  it  stands  before  a  noun,  -s  is  added;  as,  en  kvarts  timme  a 
quarter  of  an  hour;  en  kvarts  mil  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 

3.  Observe:  den  forre  the  former,  den  senare  the  latter. 

4.  On  varan'nan,  var  tre'dje,  etc.,  see  §  295,  note  2. 

EXPRESSIONS  OF  TIME  AND  DATE. 

321-  TIME  OF  DAY.    Note  the  following  expressions: 
Hur  mycket  ar  klockan?  \ 

Vad  ar  klockan?  I  What   time  is  it? 

Hur  dags  ar  detf 

Klockan  ar  eft  {fern}.    It  is  one  (five)  o'clock. 
Klockan  ar  hah  fern.    It  is  half  past  four. 
Tio  minu'ter  over  fern.   Ten  minutes  past  five. 
En  kvart  over  fern.     A  quarter  past  five. 
En  kvart  fore  (/,  //'//)  fern.    A  quarter  to  five. 
Klockan  fattas  tio  minu'ter  ifyra.   It  is  ten  minutes  to  four. 
Klockan  ar  tre  kvart  pa  fern.    It  is  a  quarter  to  five. 
Klockan  ar  mer,  an  jag  trodde.  It  is  later  than  I  thought. 
Kom  klockan  ett  (halv  ett,  fern).    Come  at  one  (half  past 

twelve,  five). 

Vid  femtiden.    (At)  about  five  o'clock. 
Pa  slaget  fern  (or,  klockan  fern  preci's).   Five  o'clock  sharp. 
Klockan  slar  (har  slagtt}  fern.    The  clock  is  striking  (has 

struck)  five. 

322-  DATE,  ADDRESS: 

Den  5  (read  femte~}  juni.    The  fifth  of  June.    June  5. 
Ar  1913.     (In)  the  }rear  1913. 
Drotfninggatan  16.    16  Queen  Street. 


XXV  NUMERALS  245 

323.  ACCENT.    •  Tusen  has  the  acute  accent.      Tretti{o~) 
—  nitti(p},  and  hundra  usually  have  the  acute  accent,  but 
sometimes  the  grave. 

324.  COLLOQUIALISMS:     (i)  Except    in   case  of  inten- 
tional rendition  of  the  written  form,  mo,  tio  and  tjugo  (-?/) 
are  pronounced  me,   tie,  tjuge. —  Tretti,  fyrti,   trettifor'sta, 
etc.,  are  the  forms  generally  used  in  speaking,  and  also 
in    reading. — Except   in  careful  speech,  aderton1  is  often 
pronounced  arton. — Fyrti(p)  is  pronounced  fbrti? 

(2)  The  words  tvenne  and    trenne   are  not  used  in  the 
spoken  language. 

(3)  In  easy  speech,  fjarndel  is  used  in  place  oifjardedel. 
— The  longer  forms  ending  in  -dedel  are  not  employed  in 
the  spoken   language  except  for  emphasis;   as,  niondedel. 

(4)  On   the   whole,  compounds  with  -dubbel  are  more 
common  in  the  spoken  language,  while  those  with  -faldig 
are  more  common  in  the  written.     To  a  certain   extent, 
however,  there   is  a  difference   in    meaning,   and    not   in 
style,  -dubbel  being  used  of  measure,  -faldig  of  time.  Ex.: 
Vi  fick   tredubbla   lexor.     We  got  lessons  three  times  the 
usual  length.    Mangfaldiga  g Anger  many  many  times. 

(5)  In  the   written    language,  en  och  en,  etc.,  are  pre- 
ferred to  en  i  sander,  etc.,  which  are  more  colloquial. 

(6)  In  easy  speech,  tjuen' ,  tjutva' ,  etc.,  are  often  used 
instead  of  tjugeeri ,  tjugetva' ,  etc. 

EXERCISE  XXV. 

At  first  she  did  not  know  where  she  was.    Everything 
about  her  was  desolate.     But  then  she  .got  up  and  went 


1  The  pronunciation  of  aderton  as  spelled  is  more  common  than  a  similar 
pronunciation  of  nio,  trettio,  tjugo. 

2  The  remark  on  the  pronunciation  of  fyrtt(o),  though  not  belonging  un- 
der colloquialisms,  is  included   here   for   the   sake  of  completeness;  see  also 
page  239,  foot-note  2. 


246  NUMERALS  XXV 

farther  out  on  the  sand.  She  saw  something  blue  lying 
behind  the  ridges.  It  was  the  sea. 

But  the  storm  had  died  away,  and  the  sea  was  entirely 
calm.  As  far  [as]  she  could  see  [there]  was1  not  a  sign 
of  land,  not  a  boat,  not  a  ship.  Clear  to  the  outermost 
horizon  all  was  one  single  glittering,  quiet  expanse  of 
blue2. 

"This  is  not  the  sea,"  thought  Violanta.  "It  is  the 
sky."  And  she  went  clear  down  to  the  edge  of  the  water 
and  put  the  tip  of  her  shoe  in  the  water.  "Is  this  the 
sea,"  said  Violanta  again  and  looked  about  her3.  "I 
hadn't  imagined  the  sea  like  that4.  Shall  I  never  get  to 
see  you,  all  the  wild  waves  of  the  sea?" 

But,  behold.  Then  it  grew  dark  at  the  horizon.  The 
outermost  line  of  the  sea  became  dark  blue,  then  coal- 
black.  A  whole  host  of  little  rippling  waves  flowed 
forth.  Then  Violanta  laughed  and  clapped  her  hands5. 
"Now  they  are  coming.  Now  they  are  coming,  the  wild 
waves  cf  the  sea."  Then  the  whole  sea  raised  itself, 
dark  blue  and  roaring,  and  came  in  large  columns  toward 
the  shore.  "The  wild  waves  of  the  sea,"  said  Violanta. 
"They  are  glorious  to  look  at."  But  nevertheless  she 
felt  a  shudder. 

But  then  the  waves  rose  and  stretched  up6  their  necks. 
They  became  green,  they  became  dark  blue,  they  became 
coal-black.  They  all  got  white  foam  on  the  tops.  With 
[a]  furious  noise  they  roared  against  the  shore.  "Ugh, 
ugh,"  whispered  Violanta,  "they  are  awful,  the  wild 
waves  of  the  sea."  But  the  sea  rose  higher  and  higher. 
The  waves  became  [as]  high  as  houses,  as  churches, 
as  steeples.  There  were  black  abysses  between  them. 

1  Use  "finnas".  4,  Like  that  sa.     Place  first. 

2  Ettanseofbluf  blatt.  5   Tr.:  "clapped  in  the  hands". 

3  Sag  sig  omkring'.  6   Strackte  pa. 


XXV  NUMERALS  247 

They  crept  together,  and  rose  up,  sprang  forward 
like  tigers,  roared  like  wild  lions,  howled  like  evil  spirits. 
Then  Violanta  lifted  her  arms  in  terror  to  the  sky. 
"The  wild  waves  of  the  sea,"  she  cried.  "The  wild 
waves  of  the  sea.  Whither  shall  I  flee?"  She  turned  to 
get  away,  but  the  sea  was  after  her.  The  waves  knocked 
her  down.  She  uttered  only  one  single  shriek,  and  then 
she  disappeared  in  the  deep.  And  the  waves  danced 
above  her,  tugged  at1  her,  and  crushed  her,  laughed 
and  sang,  shouted  and  howled.  "Do  you  know  us  now?" 
they  called  out  to  her  as2  she  was  floating  like  white 
foam  over  the  deep.  "Do  you  know  us  now?  All  the 
wild  waves  of  the  sea." 


248  NOUNS— SUMMARIES  APP.  I 


APPENDIX  I. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  VARIOUS  TYPES   OF   NOUNS 
IN  THE  DIFFERENT  DECLENSIONS. 

1.  MONOSYLLABLES  are  distributed  as  follows: 

DECL.  ENDING  IN  GENDER  EXAMPLES 

1  consonant  common  only  ros,  vdg 

2  cons.,    vowel  common  stol,  sjo 
3-  consonant  com.,  few  n.  z<>;/,   vin 

4  vowel  neuter  kna 

5  consonant  neuter,  few  com.      hits,  mil 
Irreg.  (-r)         vowel  common  sko 

2.  NOUNS  ENDING  IN  A  VOWEL  are  distributed  as  follows: 

A)  Monosyllables  (various  vowels): 

DECL.  GENDER  EXAMPLES 

2  common  sjo,  d 

4  neuter  kna,  bi 

Irreg.  common  sko,  td 

B)  More  than  one  syllable: 

a) Stressed  final  3  com.,  neuter  arme,  bageri' 
vowel  (various 
vowels) 

b)   Unstr.   final  1  common  flicka 

vowel  (-a  in  1  2  common  gosse 

decl.;     in    the  3  com.,  few  n.  handelse 

others,  -e,  with  4  neuter  apple,  hjarta 

few  exceptions  5  com.,fewn.  larare,  kilo 

in  4  and  5)  Irreg.  common  hustru 

Note  i.  In  general,  nouns  ending  in  unstressed  e  belong  to  the 
Second  Declension  if  of  common  gender,  but  to  the  Fourth  if  they 
are  neuter.  But  note  particularly  in  the  Third  Declension  nouns 
ending  in  -else  and  -arie,  and  in  the  Fifth  those  ending  in  -are, 
-ande. 

Note  2.  In  general,  neuters  ending  in  a  vowel  belong  to  the  Fourth 
Declension  (which  contains  only  such),  while  neuters  ending  in  a 
consonant  belong  to  the  Fifth.  The  Third  Declension  contains  not 


APP.  I,  II  SUMMARIES,    POST-POS.   ARTICLE  249 

a  few  neuters  ending  in  a  consonant,  and  some  ending  in  a  vowel, 
practically  all  of  foreign  origin. 

Note  3.  Final  stressed  vowels  remain  upon  the  addition  of  a  plural 
ending  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as,  sjo,  plur.  sjoar;  bageri' ,  plur. 
bageri'er.  Final  unstressed  vowels  (that  is,  -a  and  -e)  are  dropped 
upon  the  addition  of  a  plural  ending  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as, 
flicka,  plur.  flickor;  histo'ria,  plur.  histo'rier;  gosse,  plur.  gossar; 
handelse,  plur.  hiindelser. 

3.  NOUNS  ENDING  IN  -EL,  -EN,  -ER  are  distributed  as  follows: 

COMMON  COMMON  COMMON  NEUTER 

-EL      1,  only  toff  el       2,  fagel  3,  muskel  5,  hagel 

-EN  2,  socken  5,  vapen 

-ER  2,  moder  3,  neger  5,  fonster 

Note  i.  There  are  in  the  Fifth  Declension  a  few  common- 
gender  nouns  ending  in  -er;  as,  broder,  meter,  bota'niker. 

Note  2.  The  vowel  of  the  endings  -el,  -en,  -er  is  dropped  upon 
adding  a  plural  ending  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as,  toffel,  plur. 
tofflor;  socken,  plur.  socknar;  neger,  plur.  negrer. 

4.  VOWEL-MODIFICATION.     The  following  nouns,  almost  all 
of   common  gender,  modify  the  vowel  in   connection  with  the  for- 
mation of  the  plural: 

2  Decl.:  modcr,  dotter. 

3  Decl.:  and,  bok,  bonde,  fot  (also  plur.  fot),  hand,  land  (also  plur. 

land),    natt,    rot,  son,  stad,  bokstav,  strand,  tand,  and    a 
few  less  common  nouns  (for  complete  list,    see    my    Pho- 
nology). 
5  Decl.:  broder,  fader,  tnan,  gds,  lus,  mus. 

APPENDIX  II. 

THE  POSTPOSITIVE  ARTICLE. 

1.  RULES  FOR  THE  USE  OF  THE  VARIOUS  FORMS: 

A)  SINGULAR 

( i )  -en  is  used  with  all  common-gender  nouns  ending  in  a  con- 
sonant, except  those  ending  in  unstressed  -el,  -er,  -or;  see  (2) 
below;  cf.  also  (3),  note.  Ex.:  ros,  def.  rosen;  naff,  natten;  man, 
mannen. 


250  POSTPOSITIVE  ARTICLE  APP.  II 

Note.  —  Most  nouns  ending  in  unstressed  -en  use  the  indefinite 
form  also  as  the  definite  (see  Appendix  II,  2).  A  few,  however, 
drop  the  e  of  the  suffix  and  add  -en;  as,  socken,  def.  socknen; 
oken,  oknen. 

(2)  -n  is   used  with   all   common-gender    nouns    ending    in    an 
unstressed  vowel,  with  monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  (stressed), 
and  with  all  nouns  ending  in  unstressed  -el,  -er,  -or.     Ex.:  flicka, 
def.  flickan;  gosse,  gossen;  handelse,  handelsen;    larare,  Idraren; 
hustru,   hustrun;    d,    An;    ko,   kon;   toffel,  toffeln;  fdgel,  fdgeln; 
•muskel,    muskeln;     moder,    modern;    neger,    negern;    bota'niker, 
bota'nikern;  profes'sor,  profes'sorn. 

(3)  ~(e)n  is  used  with  nouns  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending 
in  a  stressed  vowel;  these  are  nouns  of  foreign  origin  belonging  to 
the  Third  Declension.     Ex.:  arme",  def.  arme'(e)n;  fotografi' ,  foto- 
grafi'(e)n. 

Note.  —  In  addition,  -(e)n  is  employed  with  a  few  nouns  end- 
ing in  /  and  r;  as,  sommar,  def.  sommar(e)n;  fjiiril,  def .  fja- 
ril(e)n. 

(4)  -et  is  used  with  all  neuter  nouns  ending  in  a  consonant  and 
with  all  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending  in  a  stressed  vowel  (which 
colloquially   may   have   only  -/);   these  latter  are  of  foreign  origin 
and  belong  to  the  Third  Declension.    Ex.:  hus,  def.  huset;  bageri' 
bageri'et. 

Note  i.  Nouns  ending  in  -el,  -en,  -er  drop  the  e  of  these 
suffixes  upon  adding  -et.  Ex.:  hagel,  def.  haglet;  vapen,  vapnet; 
fonster,  fonstret. 

Note  2.  Nouns  ending  in  -turn  and  -eum  drop  -um  before  add- 
ing -et;  as,  laborato'rium,  def.  laborato'riet;  muse'um,  muse'et. 

(5)  -/  is   used   with    all   neuter    nouns  ending  in  an  unstressed 
vowel.     Ex.:  fang-else,  def .  fangelset;  apple,  applet;    hjarta,  hjar- 
tat;  pia'no,  pia'not;  kilo,  kilot;  oga,  ogat. 

(6)  -(e)t  is   used  with  all  monosyllabic  neuter  nouns  ending  in 
a  vowel  (stressed).     These  belong  to  the  Fourth  Declension.     Ex.: 
kna,  def.  kna(e)t.     Cf.  also  under  (4). 

SUMMARY  FOR  THE  SINGULAR.     Nouns  ending  in 
CONSONANT  add  -en  (but  -n  after  unstr.  -cl,  -er,  -or} 

(but  -en  or  -»  after  a  few  suffixes) 
-et 


APP.  II  POSTPOSITIVE  ARTICLE  251 

VOWEL,   unstressed -n 

-t 

stressed,   monosyllables. ...-» 
-(*)/ 

str.,  more  than  one  syll.  -(e)n 
-et 

OBSERVE:  Common-gender  nouns  in  -el,  -er  retain  the  vowel 
of  the  suffix  upon  adding  -n;  common-gender  nouns  in  -en  drop 
the  vowel  of  the  suffix  upon  adding  -en,  or,  in  most  cases,  use 
the  indef .  form  as  definite.  Neuter  nouns  in  -el,  -en,  -er  drop  the 
e  of  the  suffix  upon  adding  -et. 

B)  PLURAL.     The  general  rule  is: 
-na  after  a  plural  ending  in  r 
-a  after  the  ending  -n 
-en  when  the  plur.  indef.  =  sing,  indef. 

In  detail: 

-na  is  used  after  r:  (i)  after  the  plural  endings  -or,  -ar,  -er,  -r. 
Ex.:  flickorna,  gossarna,  bageri'erna,  korna. 

(2)  after  common-gender   nouns   ending  in  -er  which   add  no 
plural  ending.    Ex.:  broderna,  bota'nikerna. 

(3)  after  a  vowel  in  the  Fifth  Decl.;but  the  vowel  is  dropped; 
as,  larar(e}na.      (In  addition,  -na  is  used  in  cases  like  sokan- 
dena,  after  a  vowel,  where  there  is  no  r.) 

-a  is  used  with  plurals  formed  by  adding  -n  (except  ogon,  oron). 
Ex  :  bina. 

-en  is  used  with  nouns  which  add  no  plur.  ending  (both  genders), 
except  as  above;  -en  is  used  also  with  ogon  and  oron.  Ex.: 
harden,  gassen,  ntannen,  ogonen. 

Note.  —  Nouns  ending  in  -el,  -en,  -er  drop  the  e  of  the  suffix 
upon  adding  -en.  Ex.:  haglen,  vapnen,  fonstren. 

2.  NOUNS  USING  THE  INDEFINITE  FORM  ALSO  AS  THE 
DEFINITE: 

(i)  Verbal  abstracts  (common-gender)  ending  in  unstressed  -an; 
as,  borjan,  predi'kan,  undran,  traktan,  langtan.  Ex.:  Den  hem- 
ska  klagan  hade  icke  forstum'mats,  Att  sjalva  borjan  vacker 
intres'se  eller  nyfikenhet,  ar  ju  da  nodvandigt. 


252  THE  ENDING  -E,  MALE  SEX  APP.  Ill 

(2)  Most   common-gender   nouns  ending    in   unstressed  -en;   as, 
froken,   borgen,    exa'men,    myrten,    leka'men,    tenta'men,     ordcn. 
Ex.:  Ar  froken  hemma? 

(3)  In    general,    neuter   words    of    foreign    origin  ending  in  un- 
stressed -us  and  -um    (usually    not  -ium  and  -earn).    Ex.:  genus, 
kasus,  faktum,  centrum. 

Note.  —  Do  not  confuse  the  idea  of  nouns  using  the  indef.  form 
also  as  the  definite  (that  is,  using  the  indef.  form  when  most 
nouns  would  be  in  the  def.  form)  with  that  of  nouns  being  indef. 
in  form  although  definite  in  meaning  (that  is,  in  constructions 
where  all  nouns  would  be  indef.  in  form  although  definite  in 
meaning). 

APPENDIX  III. 

USE  OF  -E  AS  ENDING.     MALE  SEX. 

1.  The  ending  -e  is  used  instead  of  -a  in  referring  to  persons  of 
the  male  sex  in  the  following  cases: 

a)  Denne,  samme,  densam'me. 

b)  Adjectives    used   as   nouns   preceded  by  the  prepositive  definite 

article. 

c)  Attributive  adjectives,  mostly  in  the  def.  sing.,  less  often  in  the 

def.  plur.,  rarely  in  the  indef.  plural. 

d)  Sometimes  in  the  def.  plur.  of  words  whose  plural  ends  in  -ar, 

and  with  nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  ending  in  -are  (e  of 
suffix  dropped). 

2.  The  ending  -e   is  always  (that  is,  for  both  genders,  and  irre- 
spective of  sex)  used    in   place  of  -a  in  the  following  cases: 

a)  Past  participles  in  -ad. 

b)  Superlatives  in  -ast. 

Note.  —  Observe  also  that  some  indeclinable  adjectives  end  in 
-e;  as,  ode.  Note  especially  present  participles  in  -ande,  -ende, 
and  comparatives  in  -are,  -re. 


API'.  IV 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


253 


APPENDIX  IV. 


LIST  OF  STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

Note.  —  The  following  list  has  been  compiled  principally  from 
"Svenska  Akademiens  Ordlista"  (7  ed.). 

Forms  that  follow  the  rules  of  the  grammar  are  usually  not 
given  (as,  past  participle,  present  singular  and  plural,  gal,  far, 
sdnde,  gifte,  etc.).  In  cases  like  bliva,  bli,  the  pres.  sing,  is 
blircr  or  blir.  The  past  plural  is  given  only  when  it  differs  from 
the  past  singular.  Irregularities  in  the  present  tense  and  the  past 
participle  are,  among  other  matters,  treated  under  REMARKS. 
No  account  is  taken  of  the  imperative  and  the  present  participle. 

Among  irregularities  are  included  also  verbs  that  are  conjuga- 
ted in  full,  or  in  part,  according  to  more  than  one  conjugation. 
In  the  case  of  the  Weak  Conjugations,  only  the  number  (I,  Ila, 
lib,  III)  has  usually  been  given  (under  the  second  column).  These 
numbers  mean  that  the  verb  has  all  the  forms  belonging  to  the 
conjugation  in  question,  except  as  modified  under  REMARKS. 
Forms  belonging  to  different  conjugations  are  (except  in  the  in- 
finitive and  under  REMARKS)  put  in  different  lines,  but  in  the 
case  of  the  Weak  Conjugations,  numerals  representing  two  or  more 
conjugations  are  usually  put  together;  as,  I  or  Ila. 

(         )  =  colloquial        *  =  poetical         p.  p.  =  past  participle 

[         ]   =  rare  t  =  archaic 

INFIX.         PAST  SUPINE 


bedja,  be  bad,  bado 


bedit 
bett 


begrava     begrov  begravit 

Ila 

begynna   begynte  begynt 

bekvama  I  or  [Ila] 
belopa       lib 

[belopp,  belu-     belupit 
PO] 


MEANING 

ask,  pray 


bury 

begin 
induce 
amount  to 


REMARKS 

Pres.  sing,  beder  or 
ber;  pres.  plnr. 
bedja  or  be;  pass. 
bedjes  orbedes;  be- 
dit, §  200;  p.  p. 
bedd 


lib   instead  of  Ila 


254 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


APP.  IV 


IN  FIN. 

PAST 

SUPINE 

MEANING 

REMARKS 

betala 

I,   Ila  or  lib 

pay 

Pres.   always  -ar 

bida 

I 

bide 

*bidde 

*bitt 

binda 

band,  bundo 

bundit 

tie,  bind 

bita 

bet 

bitit 

bite 

bjuda 

bj6d 

bjudit 

offer,  invite 

Supine  and  p.  p.  also 

tbudit,  fbuden 

bliva.bli 

blev 

blivit 

become,  be 

bringa 

I 

bring 

I*res.  always   -ar 

bragte 

bragt 

brinna 

brann,  brunno 

brunnit 

burn 

brista 

brast,  brusto 

brustit 

break,  burst 

bryna 

brynte 

brynt 

whet 

lib  instead  of  Ila 

bryta 

brot 

brutit 

break 

bara 

bar,  buro 

burit 

carry,  bear 

bora 

borde 

bort 

ought 

b6ta 

I  or  lib 

pay  a  fine 

dela 

I  or  (lib) 

divide 

Pres.   always   -ar 

dimpa 

damp,  [dumpo] 

[dumpit]/a// 

draga, 

drog 

dragit 

pull,  draw 

dra 

dricka 

drack,  drucko 

druckit 

drink 

driva 

drev 

drivit 

drive 

drypa 

drop 

drupit 

drip 

drapa 

lib 

kill 

Also  p.p.  [drapen] 

fdrap,  fdrapo 

[drapit] 

dvaljas 

dvaldes 

dvalts 

dwell 

dyka 

lib  or  I 

dive 

dok 

do 

dott 

die 

dog 

dolja 

dolde 

dolt 

conceal 

falla 

foil 

fallit 

fall 

fara 

for 

farit 

go,  travel 

fika 

I  or  lib 

seek  to 

finna 

fann,  funno 

funnit 

find 

flyga 

flog 

flugit 

fly 

flyta 

flot 

flutit 

flow,  float 

fnysa 

lib 

sniff 

fnos 

[fnusit] 

APP.  IV 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


255 


INFIX, 

PAST 

SUPIXE 

MEANING 

REMARKS 

frysa 

fros 

frusit 

freeze 

fralsa 

lib  or  I 

save 

Pres.  always  -ar 

fa 

fatt 

get 

P.p.  ater-f  add,  fan- 

fick,  fingo 

gen 

fasta 

lib  or  I 

fasten 

forena 

I 

unite 

P.  p.  also  *forent; 

cf.    Forenta    sta- 

terna 

forgata 

tforgat 

forgatit 

forget 

No  past  plur. 

forlana 

I  or  [lib] 

grant 

fornim- 

fornam,  for- 

fornum- 

perceive 

nia 

nunnno 

uiit 

forsmada 

I 

scoff  at 

tforsmadde 

tforsmatt 

forsona 

I  or  *IIb 

atone  for 

Pres.  always  -ar 

forsvinna 

disappear 

See  svinna 

forvarva 

I  or  Ha 

acquire 

gala 

gol 

galit 

crow 

Ha 

gitta 

gittade 

gittat 

care 

Pres.    always    -er; 

gat 

no  plur.    of  gat 

gitte 

giva,  ge 

gav,  gavo 

givit 

give 

(gett) 

gjuta 

got 

gjutit 

pour,  cast 

glida 

gled 

glidit 

glide 

gladja 

gladde 

glatt 

gladden 

Pres.  glader,  gladja 

gliifsa 

lib  or  I 

yelp 

gnaga 

Ha  or  [I  ] 

gnaw 

P.p.  also  [gnagen] 

[gnagit] 

gnida 

gned 

gnidit 

rub 

gripa 

grep 

gripit 

seize 

grata 

grat 

gratit 

weep 

P.  p.  in  for-graten 

grava 

Ila 

dig 

tgrov 

ga 

gatt 

go 

P.  p.  gangen 

gick,  gingo 

galda 

I 

pay 

P.  p.  also  gulden, 

legal 

galla 

Ila  or  I 

geld 

256 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


APP.  IV 


INFIX. 

PAST 

SUPINE 

MEANING 

REMARKS 

gora 

gjorde 

gjort 

do,  make 

hava,  ha 

hade 

haft 

hart- 

Prcs.  sing,  har   or 

thaver;     present 

plnr.  hava  or  ha; 

p.p.  havd 

beta 

hette 

be  called 

Prcs.  -er 

hetat 

hiuna 

hann,  hunno 

hunnit 

reach,  h  art- 

time 

hja'lpa 

lib 

help 

fhalp,  fhulpo 

thulpit 

hugga 

hogg 

huggit 

chop,  hew 

halla 

holl 

hallit 

hold 

hava 

Ha 

heave 

fhov 

fhavit 

idas 

Ila 



Icke    idas  =  be  too 

idits 

lazy  to 

klinga 

I 

ring,  sound 

Pres.  -ar 

*klang,  *klungo 

*klungit 

kliva 

klev 

klivit 

stride}  climb 

klyva 

k!6v 

kluvit 

cleave,  split 

klacka 

Ilb 

clack 

Klacka  =  hatch,  on- 

klack 

ly  lib 

klada, 

kladde 

klatt 

dress 

(kla) 

knipa 

knep 

knipit 

pinch 

knysta 

I  or  lib 

grumble 

knyta 

knot 

knutit 

tie 

koka 

I  or  lib 

cook 

Pres.  always  -ar 

komina 

kom 

kom  m  it 

come 

Past  plur.   spelled 

komrno 

krympa 

lib 

shrink 

P.  p.  also  kruinpen; 

krumpit 

str.  forms  not  tr. 

krypa 

krop 

krupit 

creep 

krysta 

I  or  lib 

strain 

krava 

kravde 

kravt 

demandpay- 

[kravde] 

[kravt] 

ment 

krona 

kronte 

kront 

crown 

lib  instead  of  Ila 

kunna 

kunde 

can 

Pres.  kan,  kunna 

kunnat 


APP.  IV 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


257 


INFIX. 

PAST 

SUPINE 

MEANING 

REMARKS 

kvida 

kved 

kvidit 

moan 

kvidde 

kvada 

kvad 

kvadit 

sins 

No  plur.  0/"kvad 

kvadde 

kvalja 

kvaljde 

kvaljt 

nauseate. 

In  latter  meaning. 

kvalde 

kvalt 

trouble 

usually    kvalde, 

kvalt 

le 

lett 

smile 

P.p.  in  be-ledd 

log 

ledas.ledsleddes 

letts 

dislike 

leva 

levde 

live 

Pres.  -er;  p.  p.  in 

levat 

be-levad 

lida 

led 

lidit 

suffer,  go  on 

Hgga 

lag 

lie 

Pres.  -er;  p.  p.  in 

legal 

for-legad 

lita 

I 

depend 

Pres.  -ar  or  [-er] 

[litte] 

[let] 

ljuda 

Ijod 

ljudit 

sound 

In     the     meaning 

[*I] 

"utter"  ,  always  I 

ljuga 

Ijog 

ljugit 

tell  a  lie 

ljuta 

Ijot 

ljutit 



Ljuta  doden  =  die 

Ivfta 

lib  or  [I] 

lift 

lyss 

lyddes 

lytts 

listen 

Pres.      sing,    and 

plur.  lyss 

lada 

Ila  or  [I] 

be  connected  Pres.  always  -er 

ladit 

with 

lana 

I  or  (lib) 

borrow,  lend  Pres.  always  -ar 

(lass) 

(laddes) 

(latts) 

pretend 

Pres.    sing,      and 

plur.  (lass) 

lata 

lat 

latit 

let,  sound 

P.  p.  in  tillaten 

lagga 

lade 

lagt 

lay 

P.  p.  lagd 



is  said  to 

Pres.  lar,  lara 

lona 

I  or  (lib) 

pay 

Pres.  always  -ar 

lopa 

lopp,  lupo 

lupit 

run 

P.  p.  in   for-lupeu 

lib 

mala 

Ila 

grind 

Also  p.  p.  nialen 

malit 

mana 

I  or  [(lib)] 

urge 

Pres.  always  -ar 

mena 

I  or  (*IIb) 

mean 

Pres.  always  -ar 

258 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


APR  IV 


INFIX. 

PAST 

SUPINE 

MEANING 

REMARKS 

mista 

lib  or  I 

lose 

Pres.  always  -er 



maste 

mast 

must 

See  §  256 



matte 

may,  might 

Ma;  see  §  253;  ma  be, 

feel,  belongs  to  III 

mala 

Ha  or  lib 

say 

Archaic,     except    in 

an-,  for-,  gen-mala 

niga 

neg 

nigit 

curtsy 

njuta 

njot 

njutit 

enjoy 

nypa 

nop 

nupit 

pinch 

nysa 

lib 

sneeze 

nos 

[nysit.nu 

sit] 

nasta 

I  or  lib 

stitch 

pipa 

pep 

pipit 

pipe 

plaga 

I 

be  used  to 

Pres.  sing,  often  plar 

rida 

red 

ridit 

ride 

rinna 

rann,  runno 

runnit 

run,  flow 

rista 

I  or  [lib] 

cut 

rista 

lib  or  [I] 

shake 

riva 

rev 

rivit 

tear 

ropa 

I  or  (*IIb) 

cry,  call 

Pres.  always  -ar 

ryka 

rok 

rukit,  [ry-  smoke 

kit] 

lib 

ryta 

rot 

[rutit,  ry-  roar 

tit] 

raka 

I  or  [(lib)] 

meet,  happen  Pres.  always  -ar 

radas 

raddes 

fear 

[radits] 

rodj  a 

rodde 

rott 

clear 

Archaic  for  roja 

rona 

ronte 

ront 

experience 

lib  instead  of  Ila 

se 

oAry 

sett 

see 

P.  p.  sedd 

simma 

sag 
sam,  summo  summit 

swim 

I 

sitta 

satt,  sutto 

suttit 

sit 

P.  p.  in  for-sutten, 

setat 

[for-suten] 

sjuda 

sjod 

sjudit 

boil 

P.  p.  sjuden  or  [su- 

den] 

sjunga       sjong 


sjungit       sing 


APP.  IV 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


259 


INFIX. 

PAST 

SUPINE 

MKAXIXG 

P^.  MARKS 

sjunka 

sjonk 

sjunkit 

sink 

skapa 

I  or  (*IIb) 

create 

Pres.  always  -ar 

skava 

Ila 

scrape 

P.  p.   also    skaven 

skavit 

skilja 

skilde 

skilt 

separate 

skina 

sken 

skin  it 

shine 

skira 

I  or  Ila 

clarify 

skjuta 

skot 

skjutit 

shoot 

skola 

skulle 

shall 

Pres.   skall,    skola 

skolat 

skona 

I  or  (*IIb) 

spare 

Pres.  always  -ar 

skrida 

skred 

skridit 

move 

skrika 

skrek 

skrikit 

cry,  shriek 

skrinna 

I 

glide 

skrann,  skruu- 

skrunnit 

no 

skriva 

skrev 

skrivit 

write 

skrympa 

lib 

become 

P.p.  also  skrumpen 

skruuipit 

wrinkled 

skryta 

skrb't 

skrutit 

boast 

skvatta 

lib 

squirt 

Strong  form  not 

skvatt 

transitive 

skalva 

Ila 

tremble 

No  plur.  of  skalv 

skalv 

skara 

skar,  skuro 

skurit 

cut 

slinka 

slank,  [slunko] 

[slunkit] 

slink 

slinta 

slant,  [slunto] 

[sluntit] 

slip 

slippa 

slapp,  sluppo 

sluppit 

not   to  have 

to 

slita 

slet 

slitit 

tear 

sluka 

I 

devour 

slok 

slukit 

sluta 

slot 

slutit 

close 

sluta 

I 

finish,  end 

slot 

sla 

slog 

slagit 

strike 

Cf.  sites  fight 

smita 

smet 

smitit 

sneak 

smyga 

smog 

sniugit 

steal,  slip 

smalla 

Ila 

make   a    re- 

Strong  form    not 

small 

port 

transitive 

260 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


APP.  IV 


INFIN. 

PAST 

SUPINE 

MEANING 

REMARKS 

smalta 

lib 

melt 

Strong  forms    not 

smalt,  smulto 

smultit 

transitive 

smorja 

smorde 

smort 

grease 

snida 

I 

carve 

Pres.    -ar  or  -er 

snyta 

snot 

snutit 

blow  the  nose 

snarja 

snarjde 

snarjt 

ensnare 

P.  p.  also  *|  snard 

*fsnarde 

*sona 

I  or  lib 

atone  for 

Pres.    always    -ar; 

cf.  forsona 

sova 

sov 

sovit 

sleep 

spara 

I  or  Ila 

save 

spela 

I  or  (*IIb) 

play 

Pres.  always  -ar 

spinna 

spann,  spunno 

spunnit 

spin 

spricka 

sprack,  sprucko 

spruckit 

crack 

sprida 

Ila 

spread 

spred 

springa 

sprang,  sprungo  sprungit 

run 

spritta 

spratt,  [sprutto] 

[spruttit]  start,  jump 

spratta 

lib  or  I 

rip,  dandy- 

Spratta       -    kick, 

ize 

sprinkle,  only  lib 

sporja 

sporde 

sport 

ask,  learn 

Pres.   sing.    pass. 

sporjes,  sporjs  or 

(fspors) 

sticka 

stack,  stucko 

stuckit 

stick 

Sticka  =  knit,   be- 

longs to  I 

stiga 

steg 

stigit 

step 

stinga 

[stang],stungo 

stungit 

sting 

stinka 

stank,  [stunko] 

[stunkit] 

stink 

stjala 

stal,  stulo 

stulit 

steal 

stjalpa 

lib      " 

upset 

Strong   form    not 

[*stalp] 

transitive 

strida 

Ila 

fight 

stred 

stridit 

stryka 

strok 

strukit 

stroke 

stupa 

I 

fall 

stop 

sta 

statt 

stand 

P.  p.  in  over-stan- 

stod 

den,for-stadd 

stadja 

stadde 

statt 

engage 

Pres.  sing,  stadjer 

or  stader 

AFP.   IV 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


261 


INFIX. 

PAST 

SUPINE 

MEANING 

REMARKS 

stodja 

stodde 

stott 

support 

Pres.  sing,  stodjer 

or  stoder 

suga 

sog 

sugit 

suck 

supa 

sop 

supit 

drink 

svida 

sved 

svidit 

smart 

svika 

svek 

svikit 

disappoint 

svinna 

svann,  svunno 

svunnit 

vanish 

Cf.  forsvinna 

svalja 

svaljde 

svaljt 

swallow 

[svalde] 

[svalt] 

svalta 

svalt,  svulto 

svultit 

starve 

Strong  forms   not 

lib 

transitive 

svarja, 

svor,  svuro 

svurit 

swear 

Pres.  svarjer  or 

svara 

svar 

syna 

I  or  [(lib)] 

examine 

Pres.  always  -ar 

synas 

syntes 

synts 

seem 

lib  instead  of  Ila 

syra 

I 

make  sour 

Syra  =  be  sour,  Ila 

saga 

sade 

sagt 

say 

salja 

salde 

salt 

sell 

samjas 

samdes 

samts 

agree 

Pres.     samjes     or 

samjdes 

sams 

satta 

satte 

satt 

set 

taga,  ta 

tog 

tagit 

take 

tala 

I  or  (*IIb) 

speak 

Pres.  always  -ar 

tiga 

teg 

[tigit] 

be  silent 

Pres.  -er;  p.p.  for- 

tegat 

tegad 

tjusa 

I  or  *IIb 

charm 

Pres.  always  -ar 

tjuta 

tjot 

tjutit 

howl 

tjana 

I  or  (*IIb) 

serve 

Pres.   always   -ar 

trivas 

Ila 

thrive,  get 

trivits 

on 

tryta 

trot 

trutit 

come  to  an 

P.p.  in  ofor-truten 

end 

ftrada 

Ila 

tread 

Pres.  trader  or  trar 

tvinga 

tvang,  tvungo 

tvungit 

compel 

Pres.  always   -ar 

I 

tva 

III 

wash 

P.p.  tvagen   or 

tvagit 

[tvadd] 

tala 

Ila  or  lib 

endure 

talja 

taljde 

taljt 

count 

Talja  =  cut,  always 

talde 

talt 

taljde,  taljt 

262 


STRONG  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


APP.  IV 


INFIN. 

PAST 

SUPINE 

MEANING 

REMARKS 

tamja 

tamde 

tamt 

tame 

ta'mjde 

tamjt 

tamde 

tamt 



torde 

be  likely  to 

Pres.  tor,  tora 

toras 

tordes 

torts 

dare 

Pres.  tors 

vara 

var,  voro 

varit 

be 

Prcs.  ar,  aro 

varda 

vart,  vordo 

become,  be 

P.  p.  vorden.   §  222 

veta 

visste 

know 

Pres.  vet 

vetat 

vetta 

vette 

face 

Pres.  -er 

vettat 

vika 

vek 

vikit 

give  way 

vilja 

ville 

want  to 

Pres.  vill,  vilja 

velat 

vina 

ven 

vinit 

sough 

vinna 

vann,  vunno 

vunnit 

win 

visa 

I  or  (lib) 

show 

Pres.  always  -ar 

vrida 

vred 

vridit 

twist 

vraka 

lib 

throw 

*vrok 

valja 

valde 

valt 

choose 

valta 

lib  or  I 

upset 

Forms  of  I  not^in- 

transitive;  valta 

=  roll,  only  I 

vain  j  as 

vamjdes 

va'mjts 

nauseate 

Pres.  vamjes 

vamdes 

vamts 

vanja 

vande 

vant 

accustom 

vaxa 

lib 

grow 

P.  p.  also  vuxen 

plur.  vuxo 

vuxit 

yra 

I 

be  delirious 

Yra  =  drift,  Ila 

ysta 

I  or  lib 

•make  cheese 

ata 

at 

atit 

eat 

oka 

I  or  (lib) 

increase 

Pres.  always  -ar 

APP.  V  BIBLIOGRAPHY  263 

APPENDIX  V. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  leading  works  helpful  in  the 
further  study  of  the  Swedish  language.  The  books  that  are  par- 
ticularly adapted  for  this  purpose  have  been  indicated  by  an  aster- 
isk. The  orthography  has  been  indicated,  wherever  important. 

TEXT-EDITIONS. 

The   following   text-editions,  edited   with    English  notes   (and 

introductions)  and  Swedish-English  vocabularies,  are  at  the  present 

time  (Jan.  i,  1914)  obtainable  or   in   preparation.    They    are  here 

enumerated  in  the  approximate  order  of  difficulty. 

*LAGERLOF:  Selections  from  Selma  Lagerlof's*  Nils 
Holg'erssons  underk>ara  resa  g'enom  Sverig'e,  edited 
with  vocabulary  and  notes  by  A.  LOUIS  ELMQUIST.  Stock- 
holm, 1912.  Pages  187  (of  this,  text,  131).  New  orthography. 
Twelve  short  stories. 

*GEIJERSTAM'S  Mina  PojKar,  edited  with  vocabulary  and  notes 
by  JOSEPH  ALEXIS.  Rock  Island,  1911.  Pages  165  (of  this, 
text,  128).  New  orthography. 

*LAGERLOF'S  En  Herrg'ardssagen,  edited  with  vocabulary 
and  notes  by  A.  Louis  ELMQUIST.  Stockholm,  1910.  Pages 
194  (of  this,  text,  149).  New  orthography. 

*LAGERLOF:  Valda  Berattelser,  edited  with  vocabulary  and 
notes  by  JULES  MAURITZSON.  Rock  Island,  1913.  Pages  153 
(of  this,  text,  115).  New  orthography.  Selected  short  stories. 

*NYBLOM'S  Det  Ringer,  edited  with  vocabulary  and  notes  by 
A.  LOUIS  ELMQUIST.  Stockholm,  1910.  Pages  73  (of  this, 
text,  51).  An  older  orthography.  Comedy  in  one  act. 

*HEDBERG'S  Pa  Torpa  Card,  edited  with  vocabulary  and 
notes  by  CARL  J.  BERGMAN.  In  preparation. 

*RUNEBERG'S  FanriK.  Stals  Sagner,  edited  with  introduc- 
tion, vocabulary  and  notes  by  A.  LOUIS  ELMQUIST.  In  prep- 
aration. New  orthography. 


264  BIBLIOGRAPHY  APP.  V 

*TEGNER'S  Frithiofs  Saga,  edited  with  introduction,  notes 
and  a  bibliography  by  GEORGE  T.  FLOM.  Chicago,  1909. 
Pages  24  (introduction)  and  202  (of  this,  text,  174).  An  older 
orthography.  Illustrated  edition. 

*TEGNER'S  Fritiofs  Saga,  edited  with  introduction,  vocabu- 
lary and  notes  by  A.  A.  STOMBERG.  Rock  Island,  1914. 
Pages  197  (of  this,  introduction,  12;  text,  114).  New  orthography. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

*ELMQUIST,  A.  LOUIS,  Phonology  of  the  Swedish  Lan- 
guage. In  press.  New  orthography.  A  detailed  presentation 
of  Swedish  pronunciation.  Intended  for  use  as  a  text-book 
in  schools. 

*LYTTKENS,  I.  A.,  &  WULFF,  F.  A.,  SvensK  Ordlista  med 
uttalsbetecKning  .  .  .  och  med  stavning  enligt 
19O6  ars  circular.  Lund,  1911.  Pages  59  (introduction) 
and  456.  New  orthography. 

LYTTKENS,  I.  A.,  &  WULFF,  F.  A.,  SvensK  uttals-ordboK. 
Lund,  1889.  Pages  68  (introduction)  and  373.  Much  attention 
is  given  to  the  variations  of  pronunciation  in  different  forms 
of  style  and  in  different  localities. 

LYTTKENS,  I.  A.,  &  WULFF,  F.  A.,  SvensKa  SpraKets 
Ljudlara.  Lund,  1885.  Pages  351  (sounds),  115  (accent). 

*DANELL,  GIDEON,  SvensK.  Ljudlara.  Stockholm,  1911. 
Pages  83.  Considerable  attention  is  given  to  phonetics. 

*NOREEN,  ADOLF,  Vart  SpraK  (see  under  grammars).  Vol- 
umes I  and  II  deal  with  Swedish  phonology. 

KOCK,  AXEL,  SvensK  AKcent.  Lund,  1878-1885.  2  volumes. 
Pages  211,  524. 

KOCK,  AXEL,  Die  Alt-  und  Neuschwedische  accen- 
tuierung.  Strassburg,  1901.  Pages  298. 

GRAMMARS. 

*NOREEN,  ADOLF,  Vart  SpraK,  nysvensK  grammatiK 
i  utforlig  framstallning.  Lund,  1903—.  This  work, 
which  is  to  embrace  9  volumes,  is  in  process  of  publication. 
Volumes  I  (pages  579),  II  (pages  491),  V  (pages  706)  and 
a  part  of  III  (pages  160)  and  VII  (pages  96)  have  been  pub- 


APP.  V  BIBLIOGRAPHY  265 

lished  up  to  January  i,  1914,  and  are  purchaseable.     The  most 

comprehensive  and  up-to-date  work  on  the  subject,  and  one  of 

the  greatest  works  ever  published. 
*BECKMAN,   NATANAEL,    SvensK    SpraKlara.    Stockholm, 

1904.     Pages   278.      A    highly    interesting,    clear,    and    modern 

presentation. 
*REBBE,  CARL,  SvensK  SpraKlara.   Stockholm   1912.    Pages 

152.     A  very  attractive  and  useful  little  book. 

SUNDEN,  D.  A.,  SvensK  SpraKlara  i  sammandrag. 
20  edition,  revised  by  K.  F.  Sund£n,  a  son  of  the  author.  Stock- 
holm, 1912.  Pages  268.  Some  valuable  new  material  has  been 
incorporated  in  this  latest  edition. 

LINDHR,  N.,  Reg'ler  och  rad  angaende  svensKa  spra- 
Kets  behandling  i  tal  och  sKrift.  3  edition.  Stock- 
holm, 1908.  Pages  231. 

BRATE  OCH  LINDVALL,  SvensK  SpraKlara.  Stockholm, 
1907.  Pages  190.  Cf.  BRATE,  SvensK  SpraKlara.  Stock- 
holm, 1898.  Pages  235.  For  a  valuable  review  on  this  latter, 
see  Noreen,  "Pedagogisk  Tidskrift,"  1898. 

SWEET,  HENRY,  Sounds  and  forms  of  spoKen  Swed- 
ish. In  ''Transactions  of  the  Philological  Society",  1877-1879 
(pages  457-543)-  London,  1879. 

*SPRAK  OCH  STIL  (see  under  JOURNALS,  below)  contains  many 
valuable  articles  dealing  with  Swedish  grammar. 

STYLE.— WORKS  DEALING  WITH  THE  DIFFER- 
ENCES BETWEEN  WRITTEN  AND 
SPOKEN  SWEDISH. 

*CEDERSCHIOLD,  GUSTAV,  Om  svensKan  som  sKrift- 
spraK.  3  edition.  Lund,  1911.  Pages  253.  An  interesting 
and  very  valuable  presentation  of  the  differences  between 
spoken  and  written  Swedish. 

CEDERSCHIOLD,  GUSTAV,  SpraK  i  SpraKet.  Stockholm, 
1909.  2  volumes.  Numbers  163  and  164  of  "Verdandis  sma- 
skrifter".  Pages  51  and  28. 

*SPRAK  OCH  STIL  (see  under  JOURNALS,  below)  contain?  much 
material  on  this  subject.  See  also  LYTTKENS-WULFF, 


266  BIBLIOGRAPHY  APP.  V 

SvensK  Uttals-ordboK  (under  PRONUNCIATION,  above). 
All  the  grammars  mentioned  above  emphasize  stylistic  differ- 
ences more  or  less. 

DICTIONARIES. 

*WENSTROM  &  HARLOCK,  SvensK-E,ngelsK  OrdboK. 
Skolupplaga.  Stockholm,  1908.  Pages  880.  An  older  orthography. 

BJORKMAN,  C.  G.,  SvensK-EngelsK  OrdboK.  Stockholm, 
1902.  Pages  1360.  An  older  orthography  (older  than  that  of 
the  preceding  book). 

*LINDGREN,  ERIK,  E,ngelsK-SvensK  OrdboK.  Skolupp- 
laga. Stockholm,  1909.  Pages  673  and  50  (proper  names).  An 
older  orthography. 

SUNDEN,  D.  A.,  OrdboK  ofver  svensKa  spraKet.  Stock- 
holm, 1892.  Pages  415,  692. 

DALIN,  A.  F.,  OrdboK  ofver  svensKa  spraKet.  Stock- 
holm, 1850,  1853.  Two  volumes,  pages  896,  772. 

*OSTERGREN,  OLOF,  is  the  author  of  a  Swedish-Swedish  dic- 
tionary now  (January  I,  1914)  in  press,  or  shortly  to  go  to 
press.  Being  written  by  one  who  is  an  authority  on  stylistic 
matters,  this  book  will  be  a  most  valuable  lexicographical  help 
to  the  student  of  Swedish. 

SVENSKA  AKADEMIENS  OrdboK  ofver  svensKa  spra- 
Ket. Lund,  1893 — .  This  invaluable  work,  -which  will  embrace 
a  large  number  of  volumes,  is  in  process  of  publication.  Up 
to  the  present  time  (January  i,  1914)  there  has  appeared:  A — 
Blifva  and  C— Dikta.  The  letter  A  embraces  2780  columns 
(two  columns  to  the  page);  of  B,  3200  columns  have  been 
published;  C  embraces  304  columns;  of  D,  1344  columns  have 
appeared.  There  are  at  present  three  bound  volumes,  while 
volumes  IV  and  V  are  almost  full.  As  the  work  is  being  pub- 
lished at  the  rate  of  two  small  sections  a  year,  the  annual  out- 
lay is  very  small.  Notwithstanding  the  comparatively  small 
portion  of  the  complete  work  as  yet  available,  the  dictionary 
is  already  an  extremely  valuable  work  of  reference. 

•SVENSKA  AKADEMIENS  Ordlista  ofver  svensKa  spra- 
Ket. 7  edition.  Stockholm,  1903.  Pages  327.  A  standard 
work  of  reference  showing  the  inflection  of  words,  but  not 
giving  definitions.  An  older  orthography. 


APP.  V  BIBLIOGRAPHY  267 

LUNDELL,  J.  A.,  SvensK  Ordlista.  Stockholm,  1893.  Pages  32 

(introduction)  and  384. 
LYTTKENS  &  WULFF;  see   their  dictionaries  given  above  under 

PRONUNCIATION. 
*MOREN     &     VON     FRIESEN,    Ordlista.      Stockholm,    1906. 

Pages  38.     Shows   the    differences   between  the  present  orthog- 
raphy and  that  used  prior  to  the  year  1906. 
STURZEN-BECKER,  V.,  SvensK  Ordlista.     Stockholm,  1906. 

Pages  60.     Purpose  same  as  the  foregoing. 
QSTERGREN,  OLOF,  5OOO   frammande    ord  med  uttal 

och  forKlaring,     2  edition.     Stockholm,  1909      Number  146 

of  "Verdandis  smaskrif  ter" .     Pages  61. 
EKBOHRN,  O.  M.,  6O.OOO  frammande  ord  och  namn 

tilliKa  med  deras   harledning   ocK   uttal.    4  edition. 

Stockholm,  1902,  1904.     Pages  424,  378. 

JOURNALS. 

^PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  SOCIETY  FOR  THE  ADVANCE- 
MENT OF  SCANDINAVIAN  STUDY.  Publications  free  to 
members  of  the  Society.  Annual  membership  fee,  one  dollar. 
The  back  numbers,  which  extend  back  to  1911,  can  be  pur- 
chased separately.  Applications  for  membership  may  be  sent 
to  the  Editor,  Prof.  Geo  T.  Flom,  University  of  Illinois,  Ur- 
bana,  Illinois.  Among  other  things,  the  publications  contain 
articles  dealing  with  Swedish  grammar  and  literature,  of  value 
to  students  of  the  language.  The  announcement  of  books  pub- 
lished and  about  to  be  published  on  Scandinavian  subjects 
(both  in  this  country  and  in  the  Scandinavian  countries) 
deserves  special  mention. 

*SPRAK  OCH  STIL,  tidsKrift  for  nysvensK  spraKforsK- 
ning.  Upsala,  Sweden.  This  journal  is  devoted  entirely  to 
the  study  of  the  Swedish  language.  Valuable  and  varied 
contents,  contributed  by  the  leading  scholars  of  Sweden.  The 
annual  subscription  is  for  America,  including  postage,  $1.50. 
Subscription  may  be  sent  to  Prof.  A.  Louis  Elmquist,  North- 
western University,  Evanston,  111.,  who  is  the  representative 
of  the  journal  in  America.  There  are  four  or  five  numbers 
a  year.  The  back  volumes,  which  extend  back  to  the  year 


268  .  BIBLIOGRAPHY  A  PP.  V 

1900,    can    be    purchased    for   $1.00  per    volume.     The  editors 
are:  Olof  Ostergren,  Bengt  Hesselmau,  and  Ruben  G:son  Berg. 

AMERICAN  SWEDISH. 

Persons  born  in  this  country,  and  speaking  Swedish,  in  almost 
all  cases  speak  a  form  of  the  language  that  has  been  much  influ- 
enced by  (American-)English.  In  the  case  of  these  the  study  of 
the  Swedish  of  Sweden  can  hardly  be  successful  unless  they  under- 
stand the  nature  and  extent  of  this  influence.  The  works  here 
named  deal  with  this  subject. 

BERGER,  V.,  Vart  spraK.  E,tt  bidrag  till  Kannedomen 
om  engelsKa  spraKets  inflytande  pa  svensKa 
spraKet  i  AmeriKa.  Rock  Island,  1912.  Pages  64. 
ANDREEN,  GUSTAV,  Del  svensKa  spraKet  i  AmeriKa. 
Stockholm,  1900.  Number  87  of  "Verdandis  smaskrifter." 
Pages  1 8. 

BERG,  RUBEN  G:SON,   SvensKan  i  AmeriKa.     Studier  i 
de  utvandrades  spraK.    In  SPRAK  OCH  STIL,  vol.  IV 
(1904),  pp.  i,  ff.     Tillagg,  Vol.  V  (1905),  pp.  250,  ff. 
ELMQUIST,  A.  LOUIS,  Ett  och  annat  rorande  svensKan 
i  America.   In  SPRAK  OCH  STIL,  vol.  XI  (1911),  pp.  17,  ff. 
ELMQUIST,  A.  LOUIS,  Anders.     In  "Vinterrosor,"  Chicago,  1911, 
pp.  35,   ff.     A   sketch   attempting   to   show   how  the  language- 
mixture  has  in  actual  life  originated. 

ZETTERSTRAND,  E.  A.,  EngelsKans  inflytande  pa  det 
svensKa  spraKet  i  AmeriKa.  In  "Ungdomsvannen," 
Rock  Island,  1904  (pp.  179,  f.;  204-207;  243,  f.;  cf.  also  pp. 
348,  ff.). 

LITERATURE. 

STEFFEN,  R.,  SvensK  Litteraturhistoria.  2  edition,  Stock- 
holm, 1907.  Pages  270. 

WARBURG,  KARL,  SvensK  Litteraturhistoria  i  samman- 
drag.  7  edition.  Stockholm,  1907.  Pages  172.  Illustrated 
edition,  1908.  Pages  219. 

SCHUCK,  HENRIK,  &  WARBURG,  KARL,  Illustrerad 
SvensK  Litteraturnistoria.  2  edition.  Stockholm,  1911- 
1912.  Two  volumes,  pages  549  and  667. 


APP.  V  BIBLIOGRAPHY  269 

ISBERG,  A.  R.,  SvensK  Litteratur  i  urval  (152(b— ). 
Stockholm,  1911.  Pages  747.  An  excellent  anthology  of 
poetry  and  prose  in  one  volume. 

STEFFEN,  R.,  OversiKt  av  svensKa  litteraturen.  Stock- 
holm, 1906-1908.  5  volumes,  pages  264,  390,  494,  297,  327. 
Selections  from  the  literature  of  the  different  periods. 

SVERIGES  NATIONALLITTERATUR,  15OO-19OO.  Edited  by 
Henrik  Schiick  and  Ruben  G:son  Berg.  26  volumes. 

SVKNSKA  VITTERHETSSAMFUNDET.  SvensKa  Forfat- 
ta.re.  Stockholm,  1910 — .  Critical  texts  of  authors  after 
1526  with  notes  dealing  with  style,  language,  literature  and 
biography. 

TEXT-EDITIONS,  see  above. 

HISTORY. 

GRIMBERG,  CARL,  Sveriges  Historia  i  sammandrag 
med  DanmarK  ocri  Norge  Stockholm,  1907-1910.  5  vol- 
umes, pages  692.  Abridged  edition,  1908-1910.  2  volumes, 
pages  380. 

BERGGREN,  P.  G.,  Sveriges  Historia.  Stockholm,  1906. 
Pages  197. 

MAPS  AND  ATLASES. 

COHRS',    Atlas  ofver  Sverige.    8  edition.    Stockholm,  1908. 

23  maps.     Index,  32  pages.     Each  map  about  7  by  9  inches. 
GODTKOPS-RESKARTA    ofver    Sverige,   prepared    by   N.   P. 

PETTERSOX.     Stockholm,  1910.     Map  about  23   by  24   inches; 

special  map  of  Gota  Canal.     Obtainable  in  several  styles. 
HE  LA    SVERIGE    for    1.5O.     16    Kartor    ofver    Sveriges 

landsKap.     Stockholm,   1912.     Each  map,  6  by  8  inches. 
EX-KROXAS-KARTA  OFVER  SVERIGE  samt  speciaJ-Karta 

ofver    Gota    Kanal.    Stockholm,    1908.     This    map    is    23 

by  27  inches.     Obtainable  in  several  styles. 


NOTE  TO  THE  VOCABULARIES. 

Gender  is  indicated  only  in  the  case  of  neuter  nouns  (n.).  De- 
clension is  indicated  by  Arabic  numerals  (1,  2,  3,  4,  5).  No  de- 
clension is  given  in  the  case  of  nouns  that  are  not  used  in  the 
plural.  Vowel-modification  is  indicated  by  placing  the  modified 
vowel  after  the  declension-number;  as,  hand  (3,  a).  In  the  case 
of  further  irregularities  the  full  plural  form  is  given. 

Of  strong  verbs  (STR.)  the  principal  parts  are  given.  In  the 
case  of  weak  verbs  the  Conjugation  is  indicated  by  Roman  numer- 
als, I,  Ha  (past  tense,  -de),  lib  (past  tense,  -te),  III.  See  also 
list  of  strong  and  irregular  verbs,  APPENDIX  IV. 

The  stress,  whenever  not  on  the  first  syllable,  is  indicated    by  ' 
placed  after  the  long  sound;  this  mark  does  not  necessarily  signify 
acute  accent.     Only  the  principal  stress  is  indicated. 

For  references  to  the  grammar  (pronunciation,  acute  and  grave 
accent,  forms,  etc.),  see  the  INDEX  OF  WORDS. 


270 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


27i 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


A 

Ack  ok/,  of,  alas 

afton  (2)  evening;    i —  this  — ; 

om  -en  in  the  evening 
aku't  acute 
alclrig  never 

all  all,  every;  allt  everything 
allaredaii  already 
alldeles  entirely 
allra  of  all,  very 
alls  at  all 

allt  more  and  more;  see  all 
alltid  always 
alltjam't  (or   al'ltjamt)  always, 

constantly,  continually 
andas,  dep.,  (I)  to  breathe 
Anders  Andrew 
andra,  sec  annan 
ankomst  arrival 
annan  (n.  annat,  plur.  and  def. 

andra)  other 
annorlunda  differently} 
ansikte  n.  (4)  face 
arbeta  (I)  to  work 
arbete  «.  (4)  work 
artne  (3)  army 
att,  con/.,  that;  to  (with  inf.] 
av  of,  from,  by;  off 
avbilda  (I)  to  image,  represent 
avslagen,  past  part,  of  avsla  to 

knock  off 


backe  (2)  hill 
bageri'  n.  (3)  bakery 
bakom  (or  bakom')  behind 


bar,  see  bara 

bara  only,  just 

barn  n.  (5)  child 

be,  see  bedja 

bebod'd  inhabited 

bedja,  be  (STR.,  bad,  bado,  belt) 

to  ask,   request,  pray;  —  om 

ask  for 

begyn'na  (lib)  to  begin 
ben  n.  (5)  bone,  leg 
berg  «.  (5)  mountain,  hill,  rock 
berat'ta  (I)  to  relate,  tell 
beso'k  n.  (5)  visit 
bi  n.  (4)  bee 
bibliote'k  n.  (5)  library 
biblioteka'rie  (3)  librarian 
biskop  (2)  bishop 
bita  (STR.,  bet,  bitit)    to  bite; 

bitas,  dep.,  bite 
bjuda   (STR.,   bjod,    bjudit)    to 

offer,  invite 
bjodo,  see  bjuda 
bjorkalle"    (main  stress  on  first 

syllable)  (3)    birch-lined  ave- 
nue 

blank  bright,  polished,  clean 
blev,  bleve,  blevo,  see  bliva 
bli,  see  bliva 
blick  (2)  glance 
blind  blind 
blir,  see  bliva 
bliva,    bli    (STR.,    blev,    blivit) 

to  become,  get,  be 
blomma  (\)  flower,  blossom 
blommande  blooming 
bla  blue 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


blasa  (lib)  to  blow 

bo  (III)  to  live  (=  dwell} 

bok  (3,  bocker)  book 

bonde  (3,  6)  peasant 

bor,  see  bo 

bord  «.  (5)  table 

bort  away,  off 

borta  away;  dar  —  otw  there 

bortre  farther,  further;  borterst 
farthest,  furthest 

bota'niker  (5)  botanist 

bra,  adj.  and  adv.,  good,  fine, 
well 

bred  broad,  wide 

bredd  (3)  breadth,  wideness 

bredvi'd  beside 

brev  11.  (5)  letter 

bringa  (I  or  lib,  bragte)  to  bring 

bro  (2)  bridge 

broder,  bror  (5,  broder)  brother 

bron,  see  bro 

bror,  see  broder 

brottas,  dep.,  (I)  to  wrestle, 
struggle 

bruka  (I)  to  use,  be  accus- 
tomed to 

brun  brown 

brusa  (I)  to  roar,  rush 

brattom  in  a  hurry;  ha(va)  — 
to  be  in  a  hurry 

branna  (Ila)  to  burn  (tr.) 

brod  n.  (5)  bread 

broder,  see  broder 

burit,  see  bara 

bygga  (Ha)  to  build 

byxor,  plur.,  trousers,  breeches 

bade  both;  bade  .  .  .  och  both 
.  .  .  and 

bado,  see  bedja 

bat  (2)  boat 


back  (2)  brook 

bar  n.  (5)  berry 

bara    (STR.,    bar,    buro,    burit) 

to  carry,  bear,  u'car 
bast  best;  conj.,  just  as 
battre  better 
bocker,  see  bok 
boja  (Ha)  to  bend;  —  sig  bend, 

stoop 

bojd  bent,  bending 
bonder,  see  bonde 
borja  (I)  to  begin 


dag  (2)  day;  i  —  to-day;  i  —  pa 
morgonen  this  morning;  om 
-en  in  the  day-time,  a  day 

dagakarl  (2)  workman 

dags;  huru  —  (at)  what  time 

dal  (2)   valley 

Danmark  Denmark 

de  (plur.  of  den,  etc.}  they,  the 

dels  partly 

dem  (obj.  plur.  of  den,  etc.) 
them 

den  (det,  de,  dem)  the,  it,  that 

den  ha'r  this,  this  one 

denna  (detta,  dessa)  this,  Ihis 
one 

deras  their,  theirs 

dess  (gen.  of  den)  its 

dess,  desto  the  (adv.) 

dessa  these;  see  denna 

desto,  see  dess 

det  it,  the,  that,  there;  see  den 

detsam'ma;  med  —  all  at  once 

detta,  see  denna 

dig,  see  du 

din  (ditt,  dina)  (familiar}  your, 
yours  (sing.) 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


273 


dit  there  (=  thither] 

ditt,  see  din 

djup  deep 

djup  n.  (5)  depth 

djur  n.  (5)  animal 

djavul  (2)  devil 

docka  (1)  rfo// 

dog,  see  do 

doktor  (3,  dokto'rer)  doctor 

dotter  (2,  6)  daughter 

draga,  dra   (STR.,  drog,  dragit) 

to  draw,  pull 
dricka    (STR.,    drack,     drucko, 

druckit)  to  drink 
drottning  (2)  queen 
druckit,  drucko,  see  dricka 
du  (dig)  (familiar}  you  (sing.) 
duktig  able,  good 
dum  stupid 
dunihet  (3)  stupidity 
duva  (1)  dove,  pigeon 
da  then,  when;  surely,  now,  at 

least 

dalig  poor,  bad 
dar  there,  where;  dar  borta  over 

there;     dar     inne     in    there, 

within 

darfor  therefore,  for  that  reason 
dari  in  that 
do  (1RREG.  STR.,    dog,    dott) 

to  die 
dod  dead 
dod  (2)  death;    till  -s  to  death, 

fatal 
dottrar,  see  dotter 


efter  after 

egen  own;  peculiar,  strange 

Egyp'ten  Egypt 


egyp'tier  (5)  Egyptian 

ej  not 

elak  bad,  naughty 

eller  or 

en  (ett)  a,  an;  one 

endast  only 

engelsk  English;  -a  the  English 

language;  pa  -a  in  English 
engelsman  (5,  a)  Englishman 
ensam  alone 

er  (formal)  your,  yours 
er,  see  ni 
ers  your 
ett,  see  en 

evange'lium  n.  (3,  -e'lier)  gospel 
exa'men  (exa'mina)  examination 


fader,  far  (5,  fader)  father 

faktum  n.  (fakta)  fact 

fall    n.    (5)    case,    event;   i   alia 

fall  at  all  events,  anyhow 
fall  «.  (5)  waterfall 
falla  (STR.,  foil,  fallit)  to  fall 
fann(s),  see  finna 
far,  see  fader,  fara 
fara    (STR.,    for,    farit)    to   go, 

travel 
fattig  poor 
feber  (2)  fever 
fern  five 
femte  the  fifth 
fick,  see  fa 
ficka  (1)  pocket 
fiende  (3)  enemy 
finge,  see  fa 
finna  (STR.,  fann,  funno,  funnit) 

to  find;    -s   to   be,   exist;  det 

finns  there  is,  there  are 
fjaril  (2)  butterfly 


274 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


(i)'/» 

fiesta;    de  —  most    (of  the,    of 

them),  most  people 
flicka  (1)  girl 

flyga   (STR.,  flog,  flugit)   to  fly 
flyta  (STR.,  flot,  flutit)  to  flow, 

float 

flogo,  see  flyga 
folk  n.  (5)  people 
fort  fast,  quickly 
fot  (3,  f  otter;  5,  diff.  meaning) 

foot 

fotografi'  (3)  photograph 
fram  forth,   forward,    on,    up, 

to  one's  destination;  fram  till 

up  to 

framfor  before,  in  front  of 
framme  there,  at  one's  destina- 
tion, arrived 

framat  (or  frama't)  forth,  along 
fredag  (2)  Friday 
f  ri  free 
frisk  well 
fritt,  see  fri 

fru  (2)  lady,  wife,  Mrs. 
frukt  (3)  fruit 
fraga  (1)  question 
fraga  (I)  to  ask  (a  question) 
f  ran  from 
frammande,  indecl.  adj.,  foreign, 

strange 

framst  foremost 

fro  n.  (4;  3,  diff.  meaning)  seed 
froken  (2)   (young)  lady,  miss, 

Miss 

ful  homely 
funde'ra   (I)    to  ponder,    think; 

—  pa  meditate  about 
funno,  see  finna 
fura  (1)  fir-tree 


fyra  four 

fa  (IRREG.  STR.,  fick,  fingo, 
fatt)  to  receive,  get,  be  per- 
mitted to 

fa,  plur. ,  few 

fagel  (2)  bird 

far,  see  fa 

fatt,  see  fa 

fangelse  n.  (3)  prison 

farg  (3)  color 

folja  (Ha)  to  follow,  accompany; 
-s  at,  recipr.  dep.,  accompany 
each  other,  go  together 

folio,  see  falla 

fonster  n.  (5)  window 

for  for,  to;  too;  for  att  (in  order) 
to;  for  .  .  .  sedan,  see  sedan; 
for  .  .  .  skull,  see  skull 

fb'rbi'  past 

forfat'tare  (5)  author 

forhal'lande  n.  (4)  circumstance, 
condition 

forklade  n.  (4)  apron 

forny'a  (I)  to  renew 

forsik'tig  careful 

forst  first 

forsvin'na(STR.,  -svan'n,  -svun'- 
no,  -svun'nit)  to  disappear 

forso'k  n.  (5)  attempt',  trial 

forso'ka  (lib)  to  try,  attempt 

fotter,  see  fot 


gala  (Ha  or  STR.)  to  crow 

galen  mad,  crazy 

gammal  old 

gata  (1)  street 

gav,  see  giva 

genast  at  once 

genom  through 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


275 


genus  n.  (5)  gender 

get  (3,  getter)  goat 

gick,  see  ga 

gifta    (lib)    to    marry;    —  sig 

(nied)  be  married  (to],  marry 
gingo,  see  ga 
giva,  ge  (STR.,  gav,  gavo,  givit) 

to  give 

gjort,  see  gora 
glad  glad,  happy 
gladde,  see  gladja 
glas  «.  (5)  glass 
gladja    (Ha,    gladde)  to  please, 

give  pleasure  (to),    cheer;  — 

sig  (at)  rejoice  (at,  ttt) 
glomnia  (Ha)  to  forget 
god  good 

godhjartad  kindhearted 
gosse  (2)  boy 
gott,  see  god 
grav  (2)  grave 
gren  (2)  branch 
greve  (2)  count 
grov  coarse,  thick,  large 
gra  gray 
grata    (STR.,    grat,    gratit)     to 

weep 

grava  (Ha)  to  dig 
grovre,  see  grov 
Gud  God 
gul  yellow 

gulna  (I)  to  turn  yellow 
gunima  (1)  old  woman 
ga  (IRREG.  STR.,  gick,  gingo, 

gatt)    to  go,  walk;   ga  ut  och 

ga  go  out  for  a  walk 
gang  (3)  time;  en  —  once 
gar;  i  —  yesterday 
gar,  see  ga 
gas  (5,  gass)  goose 


gatt,  see  ga 

gavo,  see  giva 

garna  gladly,  fain 

gass,  see  gas 

gora  (Ha,  gjorde)  to  do,  make 

Gotebor'g  Gothenburg 

H 

ha,  see  hava 

hade,  see  hava 

hagel  n.  (5)  hail,  hailstone 

halv  half 

halvvags  half-way    • 

han  (honom)  he 

hand  (3,  a)  hand 

hans  his 

har,  see  hava 

hastigt  rapidly,  quickly,  suddenly 

hatt  (2)  hat 

hav  n.  (5)  sea,  ocean 

hava,  ha  (hade,  haft)  to  have 

hel  whole,  entire,  all 

helig  holy 

heller  either;  icke  heller  neither 

heist;  vilja  —  to  prefer  to,  like 

best  to 

helt  wholly,  very 
hem  ».  (5)  home 
hem,  fl^z-.,  home 
hemifran  from  home 
hemma  at  home 
hen  nes,  her,  hers 
herr  (2)  Mr.,  Sir 
herre  (2)  gentleman,  master 
herrgard  (2)  estate,  manor 
heta  (Hb)  to  be  called,  be  one's 

name 

histo'ria  (3,  histo'rier)  story 
hit  here  (=  hither} 
hjalp  help 


276 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


hjalpa  (lib)  to  help;  -s  at  help 
each  other 

hjarta  n.  (4)  heart 

hon  (henne)  she 

honom,  see  ban 

hoppas,  dep.,  (I)  to  hope 

hos  with,  by,  at  the  house  of 

humo'r  n.  (5  or  3)  temper 

hundratals  by  hundreds,  hun- 
dreds of 

huru,  hur  how,  —  dags  (at] 
what  time 

hus  n.  (5)  house 

hustru  (-r)  wife 

halla(STR.,h611,  hallit)  to  hold, 
keep 

hard  hard 

haftig  violent,  hasty,  impetuous 

ban  from  here,  away 

handa  (Ha)  to  happen,  befall 

handelse  (3)  occurrence 

hander,  see  hand 

hanga  (Ha)  to  hang 

hant,  see  handa 

har  here 

hast  (2)  horse 

hog  high,  tall,  loud 

hogljudd  loud,  vociferous 

hojd  (3)  height 

holl,  see  halla 

hora  (Ha)  to  hear 

host  (2)  autumn-,  i  host  this 
autumn;  i  -as  last  autumn 

I 

i  in,  into 

I  (eder)  you  (plur.) 

icke  not 

ifra'n  from 

igen'  again 


igen'kiinna  (Ha)  to  recognize 

ihja'l  to  death 

ilia  ^rf,  badly 

in  *'«/  in  i  into 

ingen  (intet,  inga)  no,    no   one> 

none 
inne  within,  in  the  house;  inne 

i  in ;  dar  inne  in  there,  within 
inte  not 
intressan't  interesting 


ja  yes,  well 
jag  (mig)  / 
jo  yes 
Johan  John 
Johansson  Johnson 
jord  (2)  earth,  ground 
jordgubbe  (2)  (cultivated)  straw- 
berry 

ju  the  (adv.) 
just  just 

K. 

kaffe  «.  coffee 

kalla  (I)  /0  ta//,  summon 

kan,  s<?tf  kunna 

karl  (2)  man 

kasta  (I)  fo  throw,  cast 

kejsare  (5)  emperor,  Kaiser 

kilo  n.  (5)  kilogram  (  =  2.2  Ids.) 

klaga  (I)  to  complain 

klappa  (I)   to  knock,  rap,  clap, 

caress;  -s,  recipr.  dep.,  caress 

each  other 
klocka  (1)  clock;  -n  ett  (at]  one 

o'clock;  -n  tva  (at)  two  o'clock 
kna  n.  (4)  knee 
ko  (-r)  cow 
kom,  see  komma 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


277 


komma  (STR.,  kom,  kommo, 
kommit)  to  come;  —  att  shall, 
will,  happen  to;  — fram  arrive 

konkre't  concrete 

kons,  see  ko 

konstnar  (orkonstna'r)  (3)  artist 

konung,  kung  (2)  king 

kopp  (2)  cup 

kor,  see  ko 

kosta  (I)  to  cost 

krona  (1)  crown,  crown  (=27 
cents] 

kunde,  see  kunna 

kung,  see  konung 

kunna  (kunde,  kunnat)  to  be 
able,  cati 

kvar  left,  remaining,  there,  be- 
hind 

kvinna  (1)  woman 

kvist  (2)  twig,  bough 

kvall  (2)  evening;  i  —  this  eve- 
ning 

kyrka  (1)  church 

kyssa  (lib)  to  kiss;  -s,  recipr. 
dep.,  kiss  each  other 

kalla  (1)  spring 

kanna  (Ha)  to  know,  feel; 
—  igen'  to  recognize 

kar  dear 

kopa  (lib)  to  buy 

korsbar  n.  (5)  cherry 

korsbarsblomma  (1)  cherry-blos- 
som 

korsbarstrad  n.  (5)  cherry-tree 


laborato'rium  n.  (3,  -o'rier)   labo- 
ratory 


lade,  see  lagga 

lagnian  (5,  -man)  district  judge 

lagt,  see  lagga 

lampa  (1)  lamp 

land  «.  (3,  a;  5)  land,  country 

le  (STR.,  log,  lett)  to  smile 

led,  see  lida 

leda  (Ha)  to  lead,  guide 

legat,  see  ligga 

leka  (lib)  to  play 

leva  (Ha)  to  live  (=  exist} 

lida  (STR.,  led,  lidit)    to  suffer 

ligga  (STR.,  lag,  legat)  to  lie, 
be  situated 

liggdags  bed-time 

lika  (just]  as 

lik(a)som  as,  just  as 

likasa  (just]  as 

lilla  (-e),  see  liten 

liten  (litet,  lilla,  sma)  small, 
little 

liter  (5)   liter  (  =  7.76  pints} 

litet  a  little;  see  liten 

liv  ».  (5)  life 

locka  (I)  to  entice,  tempt 

lova  (I)  to  promise 

lustgard  (2)  pleasure-garden, 
park 

lyckas  (I)  to  succeed,  be  suc- 
cessful 

lycklig  liappy 

lyckligen  safely 

lyckligtvis  fortunately 

lag  low 

lag,  lago,  see  ligga 

lang  long 

langsam  slow 

langt  far 


278 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


lata    (STR.,    lat,    latit)    to    let, 

sound;    —  bli    leave    off,    let 

alone,  cease 
lagga   (Ha,    lade,   lagt)   to   lay, 

put;  —  sig  lie  down,  go  to  bed 
lagst,  see  lag 
Ian  n.  (5)  district 
lange  long,  for  a  long  time 
langre,  see  lang,  langt,  lange 
lara  (Ha)  to  teach,  learn;  —  sig 

learn 

larare  (5)  teacher 
lararin'na  (.1)  (woman)    teacher 
lasa  (lib)  to  read 
lofte  n.  (4)  promise 
lordag  (2)  Saturday 

M 

mala  (Ha)  to  grind 

man  (5,  a;  special  meaning -m&a) 
man,  husband 

man  one,  they,  people 

med  with,  to 

medan  while 

inellan  between,  among,  in  the 
•midst  of 

men  but 

mera,  mer  more;  longer 

meter  (5)  meter  (=39  inches) 

middag  (2)  noon,  dinner 

mig,  see  jag 

mil  (5)  mile  (Swedish  mile  = 
6.8  Eng.  miles) 

mild  mild,  gentle 

min  (mitt,  mina)  my,  -mine 

minnas,  dep.,  (Ha)  to  remember 

minne  n.  (4)  memory,  reminis- 
cence 

mitt,  see  min 

moder,  mor  (2,  modrar)  mother 


mogen  ripe 

mogna   (I)   to  ripen,  grow  ripe 

mor,  see  moder 

morgon  (2)  morning;  i  niorgon 

to-morrow;   i  dag  pa  -en  this 

morning 

morse;  i—  this  (past)  morning 
mot  against,  to,  toward 
mur  (2)  wall 

muse'um  n.  (3,  muse'er)  museum 
muskel  (3)  muscle 
mycken  much 
mycket  much,  very 
ma  may 

manad  (3)  month 
mandag  (2)  Monday t 
manga,  plur.,  many 
matte  may 
mojlig  possible 
mork  dark 
tnorkbla  dark  blue 
mota  (lib)  to  meet,  encounter 

N 

namn  n.  (5)  name 

narra    (I)    to  fool,   deceive;    -s, 

dep.,  to  fib 
natt  (3,  a)  night;  i  —  to-night; 

om  -en  during  the  night 
ned,  ner  down 
nedfor  (or  nedfo'r)  down 
nedhangande  hanging  down,  low 
neger  (3)  negro 
nej  no;  really 
neka  (I)  to  deny 
ner,  see  ned 
nere  down 

neutrum  n.  (3  or  neutra)  neuter 
ni  (er)   (formal)  you 
nog  enough,  no  doubt,  surely 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


279 


noga,  indecl.,  accurate,  partic- 
ular 

Norge  Norway 

norr  north 

nu  now 

numera  now,  nowadays 

ny  new 

nypa  (STR.,  nop,  nupit)  to  pinch; 
-s,  dcp.,  pinch 

nysa  (STR.,  nos,  nysit,  or  lib) 
to  sneeze 

nytt,  see  ny 

na  (III)  to  reach,  arrive  at 

nS.de  grace 

nagon  (nagot,  nagra)  sow*?,  a»j/, 
someone,  anyone 

nagonsin  tfz^r 

nagra,  see  nagon 

namligen  namely 

nar  <t'A6'« 

nara,  indecl.,  near,  close 

narmaste,  superl.  of  nara 

nast  «^;r/ 

naste  «.  (4)  nest 

nojd  satisfied 

noje  «.  (4)  pleasure 

not  (3,  notter)  «#^ 


obebodd  uninhabited 

och  awfl? 

ocksa  a/5O,  too 

ofta  o/?^w 

olycka  (1)  misfortune 

om   around,   about,  concerning, 

in,  of,  during,  if,  whether 
omtala  (I)  to  relate,  tell 
ond  angry,  evil;  —  pa  angry  at 

(with) 


onsdag  (2)    Wednesday 

ord  n.  (5)  word 

ordforande  (5)  chairman 

oss,  sec  vi 

ovanfor  above 

ovan  (3)   (personal}  enemy 


pannlugg  (2)  hair  on  the  fore- 
head, tuft,  fringe 
par  n.  (5)  pair;  ett —  a  couple  of 
partisk  partial,  prejudiced 
pengar,  plur.,  (2)  money 
pia'no  n.  (4)  piano 
pipskagg  11.  (5)  imperial 
plats  (3)  place 
plocka  (I)  to  pick,  gather 
plotsligen  suddenly 
port  (2)  gate 

prata  (I)  to  talk,  chat,  talk  non- 
sense 

prinses'sa  (1)  princess 
profes'sor  (3,  -o'rer)  professor 
promena'd  (3)  promenade,  walk 
promene'ra  (I\  to  walk,  prome- 
nade 
prono'men  (3,  5  or  -no'mina)^ro- 

noun 
pa  on,  in,  at,  of,  to 


rar  rare,  exquisite 

red,  redo,  see  rida 

redan  already 

regna  (I)  to  rain 

resa  (lib)  to  travel,  journey,  go; 

raise',   —  sig  rise,  raise  one's 

self,  get  up 
resande  (5)  traveler 
rida  (STR.,  red,  ridit)  to  ride 


280 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOC ABf  L ARY 


rik  rich;  —  pa  rich  in,  abound- 
ing in 

rike  «.  (4)  kingdom 

TO  (III)  to  row 

ro  peace 

roa  (I)  to  amuse 

Rom  Rome 

ropa  (I)  to  ca#,  ta//  out,  shout, 
cry 

ros  (1)  rose 

rctt,  5££  ro 

Ryssland  Russia 

ratt  right;  hava  —  fo  r^A/ 

rod  r^rf 

S 

sade,  see  saga 

sadel  (2)  saddle 

saga  (1)  tate,  story,  fairy-tale 

sagt,  5^  saga 

sak  (3)  thing,  matter,  affair 

sakta,  indecl.,  slow,  slowly 

samma  the  same 

satt,  see  sitta,  satta 

satte,  see  satta 

se  (IRREG.  STR.,  sag,  sett)  to 
see,  look;  se  pa  look  at;  se  ut 
look,  appear 

sedan,  sen  afterwards,  then,  af- 
ter, since,  ago;  for  .  .  .  sedan 
ago 

segla  (I)  to  sail 

sen,  see  sedan 

sett,  see  se 

sexton  sixteen 

sida  (1)  side 

sig  himself,  herself,  etc. 

simma  (I  or  STR.,  sam,  summo, 
summit)  to  siuim 

sin  (sitt,  sina)  his,  her(s),  etc. 
(reflex.} 


sist  last;  till  —  at  last,  finally 
sitta  (STR.,    satt,   sutto,   suttit) 

to  sit 
sjuk  sick 

sjukdom  (2)  sickness 
sjunga  (STR.,  sjong,  sjungit)  to 

sing 

sjalv  self,  himself,  herself,  etc. 
sjo  (2)  lake,  sea 
sjong,  sjongo,  see  sjunga 
ska  (=  skall),  see  skola 
skada  (1)  injury 
skada  (I)  to  hurt 
skaka  (!)/<?  shake 
skall,  see  skola 
skilja  (Ha,  skilde)    to  separate, 

distinguish 
sko  (-r)  shoe 
skog  (2)  forest,  woods 
skogsbacke  (2)  wooded  hill 
skola  (skulle,  skolat)  shall,  will 
skola  (1)  school 
skonmkare  (5)  shoemaker 
skor,  see  sko 
skratta  (I)  to  laugh 
skrev,  see  skriva 
skriva  (STR.,  skrev,    skrivit)  to 

write 

skull;  for  .  .  .  skull  on  account  of 
skulle  should,  was  to,  was  said 

to;  see  skola 

skymta  (I)  to  catch  a  glimpse  of 
skynda    (I)    to    hurry,    hasten; 

skynda  sig  hurry 
skara   (STR.,   skar,   skuro,  sku- 

rit)  to  cut 
skon  beautiful 
slagen,  see  sla 
slog,  see  sla 
slott  ».  (5)  castle,  palace,  chateau 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


281 


sluta  (I)  to  finish,  end,  stop; 
(STR.,  slot,  slutit)  to  shut, 
close 

sla  (IRREG.  STR..  slog,  slagit) 
lo  hit,  strike,  knock,  defeat; 
-ss,  recipr.  dep.,  to  fight 

slade  (2)  sleigh 

sladparti  n.  (3)  sleighing-party 

sla'kt,  indecl.  pred.  adj.,  related; 
—  med  related  to 

sliitt  (3)  plain 

smultron  n.  (5)  (wild}  straw- 
berry 

sma,  plur.  of  liten 

smaningom by  degrees,  gradually 

sinor  n.  butter 

stnorja  (Ha,  smorde)  to  grease, 
oil 

snart  soon 

socken  (2)  parish 

solda't  (3)  soldier 

soin  it.' ho,  whom,  that,  which;  as 

soinmar  (2)  summer;  i  —  this 
summer;  om  -en  in  the  sum- 
mer 

sommarnatt  (3,  a)  summer  night 

somna  (I)  to  go  to  sleep 

somras;  i  —  last  summer 

son  (3,  6)  son 

sova  (STR.,  sov,  sovit)  to  sleep 

spade  (2)  spade 

spetsig  pointed 

spinna  (STR.,  spann,  spunno, 
spunnit)  to  spin 

spisa  (I)  to  eat,  dine 

sport,  see  sporja 

springa  (STR.,  sprang,  sprungo, 
sprungit)  to  run 

sporja  (Ha,  sporde)  to  ask, 
learn,  hear 


stad  (3,  a)  city,  town 

stiga  (STR.,  steg,  stigit)  to  step, 

walk;  —  av  dismount;  —  upp 

get  up 

stilla,  indecl.,  still,  quiet 
stjala  (STR.,  stal,  stulo,  stulit) 

to  steal 
stod,  see  sta 
stol  (2)  chair 
stolt  proud,    haughty;    —  over 

proud  of 
stor  large 
strand  (3.  a)  shore 
strimma    (1)    streak,  band,  line 
strander,  see  strand 
stude'ra  (I)  to  study 
stundom  at  times 
styra  (Ila)  to  govern,  rule 
styv  stiff,  rigid 
sta  (IRREG.  STR.,  stod,   statt) 

to  stand;  —  till  be,  do 
statt,  see  sta 
stader,  see  stad 
stalle  «.  (4)  place 
stodja  (Ha,  stodde)  to  support, 

lean 

storre,  see  stor 
storst,  see  stor 
stovel  (2)  boot 
sucka  (I)  to  sigh 
susa  (I)    to  murmur,   whisper, 

sough 

suttit,  sutto,  see  sitta 
svar  n.  (5)  answer,  reply 
svara  (I)  to  answer,  reply 
svart  black 
svensk  Swedish;  -a  the  Swedish 

language;  pa  -a  in  Swedish; 

en  svensk  a  Swede 
Sver(i)ge  Sweden 


282 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


svulto,  see  svalta 

svar  hard,  difficult,  severe 

svalta  (STR.,  svalt,  svulto,  svul- 

tit,  or  lib)  to  starve 
svar(j)a  (STR.,  svor,  svuro,  svu- 

rit)  to  swear 
sy  (III)  to  sew 
syn  sight;  fa  —  pa  to  catch 

sight  of 
syster  (2)  sister 
sa  so,  thus,  then,  as,  (or  omit) 
sadan  such 
sag,  sago,  see  se 
salde,  saldes,  see  salja 
saledes  thus,  accordingly 
salunda  thus,  in  this  manner 
sasom  as,  like 

saga  (Ha,  sade,  sagt)  to  say,  tell 
salja  (Ha,  salde)  to  sell 
samre  worse;  see  dalig 
sanda  (Ha)  to  send 
sang  (2)  bed 
satt  n.  (5)  manner,  way 
satta    (lib,    satte)    to   set,  put, 

place;  —  sig  sit  down 
soka  (lib)  to  seek,  look  for 
sondag  (2)  Sunday 
sot  sweet 


taga,  ta  (STR.,  tog,  tagit)  to  take 

tal  n.  (5)  speech,  words 

tala  (I)  to   talk,    speak;  —  om, 

see  omtala;  -s  vid  speak  to  each 

other 

tavla  (1)  picture 
tea'ter  (2)  theater 
tego,  see  tiga 

telefone'ra  (I)  to  telephone 
tid  (3)  time,  life 


tidig  early 

tiga  (STR.,  teg,  tegat)  to  be  si- 
lent 

till  to,  of,  by,  at,  as;  more,  in 
addition 

tillba'ka  back 

tills  until 

tillsam'mans  together 

titnme  (2)  hour 

tisdag  (2)    Tuesday 

tjugu  twenty 

toff  el  (1)  slipper 

tog,  see  taga 

torsdag  (2)   Thursday 

trappa  (1)  stair;  en  —  upp  on 
the  second  floor;  tva  trappor 
upp  on  the  third  floor 

tro  (III)  to  think,  believe 

trang  tight,  narrow 

trad  n.  (5)  tree 

tradgard  (2)  garden,  orchard 

tradgardsmur  (2)  garden  wall 

tradgardsmastare  (5)  gardener 

traffa  (I)  to  meet;  -s  to  meet 

trott  tired;  —  pa  tired  of 

trottna  (I)  to  become  tired;  -- 
pa  to  get  tired  of 

turn,  common  or  n.,  (5)  inch 

tung  heavy 

tusen  thousand 

tvinga  (I  or  STR.,  tvang,  tvun- 
go,  tvungit)  to  compel 

tva  two 

tva  (III)  to  wash 

tvatta  (I)  to  wash 

ty  for,  because 

tycka  (lib)  to  think,  be  of  the 
opinion,  fancy;  —  om  like 

tyg  ».  (35  5)  cloth 

tynga  (Ha)  to  weigh  (down) 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


283 


tysk   German;    -a   the    German 
language;  pa  -a  in  German 

Tyskland  Germany 

tyst  silent,  quiet 

ta  (-r)  toe 

tala  (Ha)    to    endure,    tolerate, 
bear 

tanka  (lib)  to  think;  —  pa  think 
of 

U 

ull  wool 

under  under,  beneath,  during 

underhalla  (STR.,  -holl,   -hallit) 
to  entertain 

underlig  strange,  curious,  pecu- 
liar 

undra  (I)  to  wonder 

ung  young 

upp  up 

uppe  /^ 

upprepa  (I)  to  repeat 

ur  0«/  tf/~,  from;  —  ur  out  of 

ut  out;  ga  —  och  ga    to  go  out 
for  a  walk 

utan  without;  but 

ute  out,  out  of  doors 

utvartes,  indccl.,  external 
V 

vacker  beautiful,  pretty 

vad  what 

vakna  (I)  to  awake 

vald,  valt,  see  valja 

vanlig  ordinary 

vapen  n.  (5)  weapon 

var  where 

var  every 

var,  5^^  vara 

vara  (STR.,  var,  voro,  varit)  /o  fo 

varfor  a/Ay 


varifran  (or  varifra'n)  from 
where,  from  which 

varit,  see  vara 

varje  every,  each 

varken;  —  ...  eller  neither  .  .  . 
nor 

varoni  (or  varom')  about  which, 
about  what 

vart  where  (=  whither) 

vatten  n.  (5)  water 

vecka  (1)  week 

veni  who,  whom 

veta  (lib,  visste,  vetat)  to  know 

vi  (oss)  we 

vid  at,  by,  in,  to 

vid  wide 

vidare  further,  more,  on 

viclga  (I)  to  widen 

vilja  (II,  ville,  velat)  to  want  to, 
will;  —  hava  want 

vill,  ville,  see  vilja 

vin  n.   (3)  zfz'w^ 

vind  (2)  wind 

vinter  (2)  winter;  i  —  this  win- 
ter 

vintras;  i  —  last  winter 

visst  surely,  certainly 

visste,  see  veta 

vit  white 

vore,  voro,  see  vara 

vag  (1)  wave 

var  our,  ours 

var  (2)  spring;  i  —  /Aw  spring 

varas;  i  —  last  spring 

va'der  n.  (5)  weather 

val  zt'<!//,  no  doubt,   I  suppose 

valja  (Ha,  valde)  &  choose,  elect 

van   (3)  friend 

vanda  (Ha)  to  turn;  —  sig  turn 

vanin'na  (1)   (woman)  friend 


284 


SWEDISH-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY 


vanja  (Ha,  vande)  to  accustom 

vant,  see  vanda 

vanta  (I)  to  wait,  await,  expect 

varld  (2)  world 

varre,  comparative  of  elak 

vaxa  (lib)  to  grow 


yngst,  comparative  of  ung 
yrke  «.  (4)  trade,  occupation 


a  (2)  river 

aker  (2)  field 

an,  see  a 

ar  11.  (5)  jy^ar 

at  for,  to,  at 

ater  again,  once  more 

atta 


adel  noble 

akta,  indecl.,  genuine,  pure 
aldre,  comparative  of  gammal 
aldst,  superlative  of  gammal 


iilska  (I)  to  love 
alskad  beloved 
an  than 

ang  (2)  meadow 
anka  (1)  widow 
annu  j////,  jr/ 
apple  n.  (4)  apple 
ar,  a'ren,  aro,  5^^  vara 
ata  (STR.,  at,  atit)  /o 
aven  also 


6  (2)  island 

ode,  indecl.,  desolate,    deserted, 

uninhabited 
oga  «.  (ogon)  ^j/^ 
6'nska  (I)  to  wish 
oppen  open 
oppna  (I)  to  open 
ora  ».   (oron)  t-ar 
Ostersjon   77;^  Baltic 
over  oz/<?r,  across,  about 
overal'lt  (or  overallt)  everywhere 
overst  uppermost 
ovre  upper 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY. 


A  en  (ett) 

able;  be  —  kunna    (kan;  kunde, 

kunnat) 

about  om,  kring,  omkring',  over 
above  over,  ovanfor 
abyss  avgrund  (3) 
accustom  vanja  (Ha,  vande) 
across  over 

addition;  in  —  dartill  {or  -til'l) 
admire  beun'dra  (I) 
after  efter,  fran 
afterwards  sedan,  sen 
again  igen',  ater,  mera 
against  emo't 
age  aldras  (I) 
ago  for  .   .   .  sedan 
alike;  be  —  likna  (I)  varan'dra 
all  all,  hel;  all  of  a  sudden  plots- 

ligt 

almost  nastan 
alone  ensam 
along   fram,    framat     (or  -a't), 

langs 

aloud  hogt 
already  redan 
also  aven,  ocksa 
alii'ays  alltid 
among  bland,  mellan 
amuse  roa  (I);  —  one's  self  roa 

sig 

an,  see  a 
and  och 
another  en   annan    (annat),    en 

.  .  .  till 

answer  svar  n.  (5) 
answer  svara  (I) 


any  nagon  (nagot,  nagra) 

anything  nagonting,  nagot 

apple  apple  n.  (4) 

arm  arm  (2) 

army  arme"  (3) 

around  runt  om 

arrive     (at    one's    destination} 

komma   fram    (kom,    kommo, 

kommit) 

artist  konstnar  {or  -na'r)  (3) 
as  som,  sa 

ashamed;  be  —  skammas  (Ha) 
ask  fraga    (I);  bedja,   be   (bad, 

bado,  bett);  ask  for  bedja  om 
asleep;  fall  —  somna  (I) 
at  vid,  hos,  pa,  till;  at  all  alls; 

at  first  forst;  at  last  slutligen, 

till    sist;    at  once  genast;     at 

home  hemma 
author  forfat'tare  (5) 
autumn    host    (2);   —   morning 

hostmorgon  (2) 
awake  vakna  (I) 
away  bort,  borta,  ban,  undan; 

away  from  fran 
ait'ful  forfa'rlig 


back  tillba'ka 
bag  sack  (2) 
bakery  bageri'  n.  (3) 
Baltic  Sea  (the)  Ostersjon 
be  vara  (ar,  aro;  var,   voro,    va- 
rit);  bliva,   bli    (blev,   blivit); 
finnas     (fanns,     funnos,     fun- 
nits);  sta  till  (stod,  statt);  be 
situated  ligga  (lag,  legat) 


286 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


beaming  stralande 

beat  sla  (slog,  slagit) 

beautiful  vacker,  skon 

because  darfor  att 

become  bliva,  bli  (blev,  blivit) 

bed;  go  to— lagga  sig  (lade,  lagt) 

bee  bi  n.  (4) 

befall  handa  (Ha) 

before  forr,    framfor   (or  -fo'r), 

innan 

begin  borja  (I);  begyn'na  (lib) 
behind  bakom  (or  bakom'),  efter 
behold  se  (sag,  sett) 
believe  tro  (III) 
below  under 
bench  bank  (2) 
bend  boja  (Ha),  boja  sig 
bending  bojd 
berry  bar  n.  (5) 
beside  bredvi'd 
best  bast 
better  battre 

between  mellan,  emel'lan 
birch  bjork  (2) 
bird  fagel  (2) 

bird-cherry  tree  haggbuske    (2) 
bishop  biskop  (2) 
bit;  a  —  litet 
bite  bita  (bet,  bitit);  bitas 
black  svart 

blast  of  wind  vindstot  (2) 
blind  blind 
blooming  blommande 
blossom  blomma  (1) 
blow  blasa  (lib);  spruta  (I) 
blue  bla;  dark  —  morkbla 
boat  bat  (2) 
book  bok  (3,  bocker) 
botanist  bota'niker  (5) 
both  .  .  .  and  bade  .      .  och 


boy  gosse  (2) 

braid  flata  (1);  flata  (I) 

branch  gren  (2) 

bread  brod  n.  (5) 

break  ga  sender    (gick,    gingo, 

gatt) 

breathe  andas  (I) 
breeze  bris  (3) 
bridge  bro  (2) 
bring  fora  (Ha) 
broad  bred,  vid 
broken  bruten 
brook  back  (2) 

brother  broder,  bror  (5,  broder) 
brown  brun 
build  bygga  (Ha) 
bullet  *x\&  (1) 
bush  buske  (2) 
but  men,  utan 
butter  smor  n. 
butterfly  fjaril  (2) 
buy  kopa  (lib) 
djj/  av,  vid,  med 


call  kalla  (I);  call  (out)  ropa  (I) 

«z/w  lugn 

calm  lugna  (I) 

can  kunna  (kan;  kunde,  kunnat) 

capital  huvudstad  (3,  a) 

careful  forsik'tig 

carry   bara    (bar,   buro,    burit); 

fora  (Ha) 
cast  kasta  (I) 
catch ;  —  a  cold  f orky'la  sig  ( Ha ) ; 

—  sight  of  ib.    syn    pa    (fick, 

fingo,  fatt) 
cautiously  forsik'tigt 
chair  stol  (2) 
chairman  ordforande  (5) 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


287 


cheek  kind  (3) 
cherry  korsbar  n.  (5) 
cherry-blossom   korsbarsblomma 

(1) 

cherry-tree  korsbarstrad  n.  (5) 
chestnut-tree  kastan'jetrad  n.  (5) 
child  barn  n.  (5) 
Christmas  jul  (2);  —  period  jul- 

tid;  —present  julklapp  (2) 
church  kyrka  (1) 
city  stad  (3,  a) 
clap  klappa  (I) 
clatter  klappra  (I) 
clear  anda 

climb  stiga  upp  (steg,  stigit) 
closer  narmare 
tfo/A  tyg  «.   (3;  5) 
coal-black  kolsvart 
coffee  kaffe  «. 
cold  kail;  ozlf/*  a  —  forky'la  sig 

(Ila) 

color  farg  (3) 
column  kolon'n  (3) 
come    komma     (kom,    komnio, 

kommit) 

complain  klaga  (I) 
condition  forhal'lande  n.  (4) 
constantly  alltjam't  (or  alltjamt) 
cost  kosta  (I) 
cottage  stuga  (1) 
country  land  n.  (3,  a;  5) 
couple  <?/"ett  par 
course  lopp  n.  (5) 
cow  ko  (-r) 

creep  krypa  (krop,  krupit) 
crown  krona  (1) 
crown  krona  (lib) 
crush  krossa  (I) 
cry  out  ropa  (I) 
cultivated,  see  strawberries 


cup  kopp  (2) 

cut  skara  (skar,   skuro,  skurit); 
—  off  skara  av,  avskara 


dance  dans  (2;  3) 

dance  dansa  (I) 

dark  mork;  grow  — morkna  (I); 

dark  blue  morkbla 
daughter  dotter  (2,  6) 
day  dag  (2);    day    of  sunshine 

solskensdag  (2) 
dead  dod 
dear  kar 
deep  djup 
deep  djup  n.  (5) 
dense  tat 
depth  djup  n.  (5) 
deserted  ode,  indecl. 
desolate  ode,  indecl. 
destination;  at  —  frarnme;  to  — 

fram 

die  do  (dog,  dott) 
difficult  svar 
disappear    forsvin'na     (-svan'n, 

-svun'no,  -svun'nit) 
district  Ian  n.  (5) 
do  gora  (gjorde,  gjort) 
doctor  doktor  (3,  dokto'rer) 
dog  hund  (2) 
doll  docka  (1) 
double  dubbel 
doubt ;  no  —  nog 
dove  duva  (1) 

down  ned,  ner,  nedfor(0r  -fo'r) 
drca>n  of  ana  (I) 
<//r5.y  klanning  (2) 
dress  klada  sig  (Ha) 
dress-goods  klanningstyg  «.(3;  5) 
drink  dryck  (3) 


288 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


drink    dricka    (drack,     drucko, 

druckit) 
drive  jaga  (I) 
duck  and  (3,  a) 
during  om 

E 

each  other  varan'dra 
early  tidigt 
earth  jord  (2) 
easy-chair  vilstol  (2) 
eat  ata  (at,  atit) 
edge  of  the  zwaferstra 
eight  atta 

emperor  kejsare  (5) 
end  ande  (or  anda)    (2) 
enemy  fiende  (3);    (personal)  — 
ovan  (3) 

English  engelsk,  engelska 

Englishman  engelsman  (5,  a) 

enough  nog 

entire  hel 

entirely  alldeles 

Europe  Euro'pa 

£#<?«  ens 

evening  afton  (2);  kvall  (2);  this 
—  i  afton;  in  the  —  om  aftonen 

ever  nagonsin 

every  varje,  var 

everything  allt 

everywhere  b'veral'lt  (or  overallt' 

evil  ond 

examination  exa'men   (-a'mina} 

explain  forkla'ra  (I) 

extend  stracka  ut  (lib) 

eye  6'ga  n.  (ogon) 

eye-lash  ogonhar  n.  (5) 
F 

face  ansikte  n.  (4) 

fair  skon 


'all  fall  «.   (5) 

'all  falla  (foil,   fallit);  —  asleep 

somna  (I) 

car  langt  (langre,  langst) 
rarther  \-idare,  langre 
fast  fort 
fat  fet 
father  fader,  far  (5,  fader) 

/  kanna  (Ha),  kanna  med  sig 
fetch  hamta  (I) 
fever  feber  (2) 
few;  a  —  nagra 

rf/tf  fio'l  (3) 
field  aker  (2);  fait  ».  (5) 
fight  slass  (slogs,  slatts) 

rf  finna  (fann,  funno,  funnit) 
fine  vacker 
finish  sluta  (I) 
^?r5^  forst;  at  —  forst 
fir-tree  fura  (1) 
yfotf  fern 
^a^-  flagga  (1) 
flash  blixtra  (I) 
flee  fly  (III) 
./foa/  flyta  (not,  flutit) 
^?oor/  ow  2fA^  second  —  en  trappa 

upp;  on  the  third  —  tva  trap- 

por  upp 
flour  mjol  ». 
flour-bag  tnjolsack  (2) 
^?ozt;  flyta  (flot,  flutit) 
flower  blomma  (1) 
flower-garden   blomstertradgard 

(2) 

flutter  fladdra  (I) 
fly  flyga  (flog,  flugit) 
fly  fluga  (1) 
foam  skum  n. 
follow  folja  (Ha) 
food  mat 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


289 


foot  fot  (3,  f otter;  in  special 
meaning,  5) 

for  till,  ty,  for 

force  tvinga  (I  or  tvang,  tvungo, 
tvungit) 

forest  skog  (2) 

forget  glonima  (Ila) 

formerly  forr 

forth  fram 

fortunately  lyckligtvis 

forward  fram 

fragrant  doftande 

fresh  frisk 

freshly-baked  nygraddad 

friend  van  (3);  (woman}  —  van- 
in'na  (1) 

friendly  vanlig 

frightened  forskrac'kt 

from  fran,  av;  from  which  var- 
ifran  (or  -fra'n);  from  here 
harifran  {or  -fra'n) 

full  full 

furious  valdsam 
G 

gate  port  (2) 

gather  samla  (I) 

gentle  mild 

gentleman  herre  (2) 

German  tysk;  the  German  lan- 
guage tyska 

get  fa  (fick,  fingo,  fatt);  bliva, 
bli  (blev,  blivit);  komma  (kom, 
kommit) ;  £•£/  to  fa;  get  up  re- 
sa  sig  (lib),  stiga  upp  (steg, 

•   stigit) 

girl  flicka  (1) 

give  giva  (gav,  gavo,  givit) 

glass  glas  «.  (5) 

glittering  stralande 

glorious  ha'rlig 


glow  gloda  (Ha) 

go  ga  (gick,  gingo,  gatt);  is  go- 
ing to  kommer  att;  go  out  for 
a  walk  ga  ut  och  ga;  go  to 
sleep  somna  (I) 

goat  get  (3,  getter) 

gone  borta 

good  god,  bra,  snail 

goose  gas  (5,  gass) 

gradually  smaningom 

grain  sad 

grass  gras  n.  (5) 

grave  gray  (2) 

grave  allvarlig 

gray  gra 

green  gron 

greeting  halsning  (2) 

grind  mala  (Ila) 

ground  mark 

grove  lund  (2;  3) 

grow  va'xa  (lib);  —  dark  mork- 

na  (I);  —  weary  trottna  (I) 

H 

hair  har  «.  (5) 

hand  hand  (3,  a) 

happen  handa  (Ila) 

happy  glad,  lycklig 

hard  svar 

hat  hatt  (2) 

have  hava,  ha  (har;  hade,  haft); 
have  to  maste 

he  han 

head  huvud  «.  (-en  or  5) 

healthy  frisk 

hear  hora  (Ila) 

heart  hjarta  n.  (4) 

heat  varme 

heath  hed  (2) 

heavy  tung  (tyngre,  tyngst) 

height  hojd  (3) 


2QO 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


help  hjalpa  (lib);  —  each   other 

hjalpas  at 
her    henne;    hennes;    refl.,    sin 

(sitt,  sina) 

here  bar;  hit  (  =  hither} 
hers  hennes;  refl.,  sin  (sitt,  sina) 
herself  sig;  sjalv 
hidden  dold 

hide-and-seek  kurra  gomma 
high  hog  (-re,  -st) 
hill  kulle  (2);  backe  (2) 
him  honom 
himself  sig;  sjalv 
hip-bone  hoft  (3) 
his  hans;  sin  (sitt,  sina) 
hole  hal  ».  (5) 
home  hem;  at  home  hemma 
home  hem  n.  (5) 
hope  hoppas  (I) 
horizon  horison't  (3) 
horse  hast  (2) 
host  har  (2) 
/w«5£  bus  «.  (5) 
Aozf  huru,  hur 
A0a//  tjuta  (tjot,  tjutit) 
human  life  manniskoliv  «.  (5) 
humble  odmjuk 
hurl  kasta  (I) 
hurry  skynda  (sig)   (I);  fo  in  a 

—  ha  brattom 
hurt  skada  (I) 


/jag 
zVjv  isande 
if  om 

imagine  tanka  sig  (lib) 
*«  i,  om,  pa;  in  there  darin'ne; 
in  addition  dartill  (or  dartil'l) 
interesting  intressan't 


into  in,  in  i,  till 

island  6  (2) 

it  den  (det);  det 

its  dess;  refl.,  sin  (sitt,  sina) 

itself  sig;  sjalv 


jewel  adelsten  (2) 
John  Johan 
Johnson  Johansson 
yoy  lust 

y«w^  hoppa  (I) 

just  nyss;  y«s/  //a1;/  i  detsain'ma; 
just  as  lika,  likasa 


/fe<?^>  halla  (holl,  hallit) 
kerchief  halsduk  (2) 
kilogram  kilo  w.  (5) 
kindheartcd  godhjartad 
king  konung,  kung  (2) 
kingdom  rike  n.  (4) 
knee  kna  «.  (4) 
knife  kniv  (2) 
knock  sla  (slog,  slagit) 
know    kanna    (Ha);    veta    (vet; 
visste,  vetat) 


laboratory  laborato'rium    n.    (3, 

-o'rier) 

lady  dam  (3) 
/a£*  sjo  (2) 
lamp  lampa  (1) 
land  land  n.  (3,  a;  5) 
large  stor  (storre,  storst) 
/a^/  sist;  at  —  till  sist,  slutligen 
laugh  skratta  (I) 
lead  fora  (Ha) 
lea/blad  n.   (5);  lov  «.   (5) 
lara  (Ha),  lara  sig 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


29I 


ledge  klippavsats  (3) 

leg  ben  n.  (5) 

lesson  laxa  (1) 

letter  brev  n.  (5) 

librarian  biblioteka'rie  (5) 

library  bibliote'k  «.  (5) 

lie  Hjrga  (lag,  legat) 

life  Hv  n.  (5) 

life-time  inanniskoliv  ». ;  livstid 

/(/*  lyfta  (lib) 

/z^vW/y  latt 

like  som 

/z'/te  tycka  om  (lib) 

linden-tree  lincl  (2) 

line  rand  (3,  a) 

//<?»  lejon  n.  (5) 

listen  lyssna  (I) 

liter  liter  (5) 

#///*  liten  (litet,  lilla,  sma); 
a  —  litet 

live  bo  (III);  leva  (Ha) 

living  levaiide 

lock  lock  (2) 

long  lang  (langre,  langst);  long, 
for  a  long  time  lange;  no  lon- 
ger icke  langre 

long  langta  (I) 

longing  langtan 

look  se  (sag,  sett);  se  ut;  look 
at  se  pa;  look  for  soka  (lib); 
look  out  akta  sig  (I) 

loud  hog 

love  alska  (I) 

low  lag  (lagre,  lagst) 

loyal  trogen 

lure  locka  (I) 

M 

make  gora  (gjorde,  gjort);  ska- 
pa  (I) 


man  man  (5,  a);  karl  (2);  old  — 

gubbe  (2) 

many  manga,  plur. 
march  marsche'ra  (I) 
March  mars 
marry  gifta   (lib);   be   married 

gifta  sig 
me  mig 

meadow  ang  (2) 
mean  mena  (I) 
meet  mota  (lib);  tra'ffa  (I),  traf- 

fas 

meter  meter  (5) 
midst;  in  the  —  of  mellan 
mile  mil  (5) 
mill  kvarn  (2) 
miller    mjolnare     (5);   miller's 

servant  mjolnardrang  (2) 
mill-wheel  kvarnhjul  «.  (5) 
mine,  see  my 
misfortune  olycka  (1) 
Miss  froken  (2) 
moment  ogonblick  n.   (5) 
money  pengar,  plur. 
more  mera,  mer;  flera  (-e);    till 
morning  morgon    (2);   this —  i 

clag  pa  morgonen,  i  morse 
most  mest;  fiesta  (-e);  most  of 

the  time  for  det  niesta 
mother  moder,  mor  (2,  modrar) 
mountain  berg  n.  (5);  bergshojd 

(3) 

mouth  mun  (2) 
Mr.  herr  (2) 
Mrs.  fru  (2) 
much  mycket 

museum  muse'um  n.  (3,  -e'er) 
must  niaste 
mutter  mumla  (I) 
my  min  (mitt,  mina) 


292 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


N 

name  namn  n.  (5) ;  be  one's  name 

beta  (Hb) 
narrow  trang  (trangre,  trangst); 

smal 

nature  natu'r  (3) 
naughty  elak 
near  na'ra 
neck  hals  (2) 
negro  neger  (3) 
neighbor  granne  (2) 
neither  .  .  .  nor  varken  .  .  .  eller 
nest  naste  n.  (4) 
neuter  neutrum  n.    (3,   neutrer; 

neutra) 
never  aklrig 

nevertheless  anda,  i  alia  fall 
new  ny 
next  nasta 
night  natt  (3,  a) 
no  nej;    no  doubt  nog,    va'l;    no 

longer  icke  langre,  icke  mera 
no  ingen  (inget,  inga) 
noble  a'del 
noise  brak  n. 
none  ingen  (inget,  inga) 
noon  middag  (2) 
noonday  sun  middagssol 
nor  eller;  see  neither 
Norway  Norge 
not  icke,  ej,  inte 
nothing   ingenting;  —  but  icke 

annat  an 
now  nu 
nut  not  (3,  notter) 


o  a 

oak  ek  (2) 

ocean    bay  n.  (5) 


o'clock    klockan;    (at)    eight  — 

klockan  atta 
o/&\',  pa,  till,  oni,  i 

Off  9* 

often  ofta 

oh  ack 

old  gamtnal  (aldre,  aldst) 

on  pa,  om,  i;  vidare 

once  en  gang;  —  more  en   gang 

till;  at  —  genast 
one  en  (ett);  man 
one's  se/f&ig;  sig  sjalv 
only  endast,  bara,  blott 
only  enda  (-e) 
onward  framat  (or  frama't) 
open  6'ppen 
open  oppna  (I) 
opposite  motsatt 
or  eller 

orchard  trad  gar  d  (2) 
other  annan  (annat,  andra) 
our,  ours  var 
out  ute,  ut;  out  of  (ut)  ur;    out 

of  breath  andfadd 
outermost  ytterst 
outside  ute,  utanfor 
over  over;  —  there  dar  borta 
own  egen 

P 

paint  mala  (I) 
pair  par  n.  (5) 
palace  slott  n.  (5) 
/ate  blek 

parents  foral'drar,  plur. 
parish  socken  (2) 
particular  noga,  indecl. 
pass  ga  (gick,    gingo,    gatt);  — 

otit  ga  ut,  utga 
past  forbi' 
pasture  hage  (2) 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


293 


path  stig  (2) 

pay  Ion  (3) 

peace  ro 

peasant  bonde  (3,  6) 

peep  forth  titta  fram  (I) 

people  folk  n.  (5) 

period,  see  Christmas 

permission  tillatelse 

permit  tillata  (-lat,  -latit);  lata 

photograph    fotografi'  (3) 

piano  pia'no  n.  (4) 

pick  plocka  (I);  bryta  (brot, 
brutit) 

pigeon  duva  (1) 

place  plats  (3);  stalle  n.  (4) 

plain  slatt  (3) 

play  leka  (lib);  spela  (I) 

please  beha'ga  (I) 

plenty  of  fullt  upp  med 

pocket  ficka  (1) 

ponder  (over}  funde'ra  (pa)  (I) 

poor  fattig 

possible  mojlig 

powerful  kraftig 

present,  see  Christmas 

press  tranga  (Ha) 

pretty  vacker 

princess  prinses'sa  (1) 

prison  fangelse  n.  (3) 

professor  profes'sor  (3,  professo'- 
rer) 

promise  lofte  «.  (4) 

promise  lova  (I) 

pronoun  prono'men  n.  (553;  pro- 
no'mina) 

proud  (of)  stolt  (over) 

put  satta  (satte,  satt);  lagga  (la- 
de, lagt);  sticka  (stack,  stucko, 
stuckit);  put  on  taga  pa  (tog, 
tagit) 


quickly  hastigt 

quiet,  quietly  stilla,  tyst 

R 

rain  regna  (I) 

raise  resa  (lib);  lyfta  (lib) 

raisin  russin  n.  (5) 

range  as  (.2) 

rapidly  hastigt 

rarely  sallan 

reach  na  (III) 

read  lasa  (i)   (lib) 

receive  fa  (fick,  fingo,  fatt) 

recline  ligga  (lag,  legat) 

recover  bliva  bra  (blev,  blivit) 

red  rod 

region  trakt  (3) 

relate  berat'ta  (I);  tala  om  (I), 

omtala 

related  (to)  slakt  (med),  indecl. 
remember  komma  iha'g    (koui, 

kommit) 

remind  (of)  paminna  (om)  (Ila) 
reminiscence  minne  n.  (4) 
repeat  upprepa  (I) 
reply  svara  (I) 
resting-place  viloplats  (3) 
return  atervanda  (Ha) 
ride  rida  (red,  ridit) 
ridge  as  (2);  —  of  sand  sandas 

.(2) 
right  ratt;    be  right   hava   ratt 

(hade,  haft);  —  on  mitt  pa 

ripe  mogen 
I    ripen  mogna  (I) 

rippling  krusig 

rise  stiga  upp  (steg,  stigit);  ga 
upp  (gick,  gingo,  gatt);  resa 
sig  (lib);  lyfta  sig  (lib) 


294 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


river  a  (2);  flod  (3) 

roam  vandra  (I) 

roar  brusa  (I);  dana  (I);    vrala 

(I);  ryta  (rot,  rutit) 
roll  rulla  (I) 
roof  tak  n.  (5) 
rose  ros  (1) 
round  rund 
royal  kunglig 
rumble  dana  (I) 
run   springa   (sprang,    sprungo, 

sprungit) 
rush  brusa  (I) 


sail  segla  (I) 

sailor  sjoman  (5,  a) 

same  samma  (-e) 

sand  sand 

satisfied  nojd 

Saturday  lordag  ( 2 ) ;  —  evening 

lordagskvall  (2) 
say  saga  (sade,  sagt) 
scarcely  knappt 
school  skola  (1) 
sea  hav  n.   (5) 
second,  see  floor 
secret  hemlighet  (3)  . 
see  se  (sag,  sett) 
seed  fro  n.  (4;  3) 
seem  synas  (lib);  se  ut  (sag,  sett) 
self  sja'lv 

sell  salja  (salde,  salt) 
send  sanda  (Ha);  skicka  (I) 
service  tjanst  (3) 
set  ga  ned  (gick,  gingo,  gatt) 
sew  sy  (III) 
shadow  skugga  (1) 
shake  skaka  (I) 
shall  komma  att;  skola  (skall) 


she  hon 

ship  skepp  n.  (5) 

shoe  sko  (-r) 

shoemaker  skomakare  (5) 

shore  strand   (3,    a);  —  of  lake 

sjostrand 
should  skulle 

shout  skrika  (skrek,  skrikit) 
shriek  skrik  n.  (5) 
shudder  ry string  (2) 
sick  sjuk 
side  sida  (1) 
sigh  sucka  (I) 
sight;  catch  —  0/fa  syn  pa  (fick, 

fingo,  fatt) 
sign  spar  n.  (5) 
silent  tyst;  be — tiga  (teg,  tegat) 
silk  silke  n.  (4) 
sincerely  arligt 
sing  sjunga  (sjong,  sjungit) 
single  enda  (-e) 
sister  syster  (2) 
sit  sitta  (satt,    sutto,    suttit);  — 

down  satta  sig  (satte,  satt) 
situated;  be  —  ligga  (lag,  legat) 
sixteen  sexton 
sky  hinimel  (2) 
sleep  sova  (sov,  sovit);  go  to  — 

somna  (I) 
slender  smart,  smal 
slip  glida  (gled,  glidit) 
slipper  toffel  (1) 
slow(ly)  sakta;  smaningom 
small  liten  (litet,  lilla,  sma;  min- 

dre,  minst) 
smell  dofta  (I) 
smile  le  (log,  lett) 
sneeze  nysa  (nos,  nysit;  or  lib) 
so  sa 
soft  mjuk;  mild 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


295 


soldier  solda't  (3) 

so  me  nagon  (nagot,  nagra) 

something  nagot 

soon  snart,  fort 

sooner  forr 

sough  susa  (I) 

speak  tala  (I) 

speed  fart 

spin    spinna     (spann,      spunno, 

spunnit) 
spirit  ancle  (2) 
spread  breda  (Ha);  —  out  breda 

sig 
spring  var  (2);  this  —  i  var;  last 

—  i  varas 
spring  kalla  (1) 
spring  springa  (sprang,  sprungo, 

sprungit) 
stairs  trappa  (1) 
stand  sta  (stod,  statt) 
stay  stanna  (I) 

steal  stjala  (stal,  stulo,  stulit) 
steep  brant 
steeple  tornspira  (1) 
still  a'nnu  (or  annu');  stilla 
stone  sten  (2) 
stop  stanna  (I) 
stork  stork  (2) 
storm  storm  (2) 
storm  storma  (I) 
story  histo'ria  (3,  -o'rier);  saga(l) 
stout  tjock 

strange  underlig;  egen 
stranger  (den)  okanda  (-e) 
strawberries;  (wild)  —  smultron 

n.  (5);  (cultivated}  —  jordgub- 

be  (2) 

streak  strimma  (1) 
stream  flod  (3) 
street  gata  (1) 


strength  kraft  (3) 

stretch  stracka'(IIb) 

strike  sla  (slog,  slagit) 

strong  stark 

such  sadan 

summer  sommar  (2);  in  (during) 

the  —  om  sommaren ;  last  —  i 

sotnras;    summer's    heat  som- 

marvarme 
sun  sol  (2) 
sunshine  solsken  «. 
surprised  forva'nad 
swallow  svala  (1) 
swan  svan  (1;  2;  3) 
Swede  (en)  svensk  (2) 
Sweden  Sver(i)ge 
Swedish  svensk;  the  —  language 

svenska;  in  —  pa  svenska 
sweetly  ljuvligt 
swift  rapp 

T 

table  bord  n.  (5) 

take  taga,  ta  (tog,  tagit) 

talk  tala  (I) 

tall  lang.hog 

teacher  larare   (5);    (woman)  — 

lararin'na  (1) 
tell    berat'ta     (I);     saga    (sade, 

sagt);  tala  om  (for)    (I),   om- 

tala 
ten  tio 

terror  skrack 
than  an 
that    att;    som,    vad;    det,    den 

(det,  de) 
the  den  (det,  de);  ju,  dess,  des- 

to;  see  §  40 
theater  tea'ter  (2) 
their  deras,  sin  (sitt,  sina) 


296 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


them  dem 

themselves  sig,  sjalva 

then  da,  darefter  (or  -ef'ter),  se- 

(da)n,  sa 
there  dar,  det,  dit  (=  thither}; 

over  —  dar  borta 
these  dessa 
they  de,  man 

thick  grov  (grovre,  grovst) 
thicket  skogsdjup  n.  (5) 
thing  ting  n.  (5);  sak  (3) 
think  tanka  (lib);  tycka   (lib); 

tro  (III) 

this  denna  (detta,  dessa) 
thought  tanke  (2) 
thoughtful  tankfull 
three  tre 
through  genom 
throw  kasta  (I) 

tie  binda  (band,  bundo,  bundit) 
tiger  tiger  (2) 
till  till 
time  tid  (3);  gang  (3);   at  that 

—  pa    den  tiden;   at    what  — 

huru  dags;  a  long  —  lange 
tip  spets  (2) 
tired  (of)  trott  (pa);   become  — 

(of)  trottna  (pa)  (I) 
to  till,  for,  att,  for  att,  med,  pa, 

vid,  mot 
to-day  i  dag 
together  tillsam'mans 
to-morrow  i  morgon 
tongue  tunga  (1) 
too  for,  ocksa 
top  topp  (2) 
touch  bero'ra  (Ha) 
toward(s)  mot 
town  stad  (3,  a) 
train  tag  n.  (5) 


tree  trad  n.   (5) 

true  akta,  indecl. 

try  forso'ka  (lib) 

Tuesday  tisdag  (2);  last  —  i  tis- 

dags 

tug  slita  (slet,  slitit) 
turn    vanda    (Ha),    vanda    sig; 

driva  (drev,  drivit) 
two  tva 

U 

ugh  hu 

uncle  farbror  (5);  morbror  (5) 

unconscious  utan  medvetande 

under  under 

understand  forsta'  (-sto'd,  -stat't) 

uneasy  orolig 

uninhabited  obebodd 

until  tills 

up  upp,  uppe;  up  on  pa;   up    to 

fram  till 
upon  pa 
us  oss 

use  bruka  (I) 
useful  nyttig 
usual  vanlig 
usually  vanligen 
utter   uppgiva  (-gav,  -gavo,  -gi- 

vit) 

V 

vacant  ledig 
valley  dal  (2) 
veil  sloja  (1) 
very  mycket,  allra,  sjalv 
vicinity  narhet 
village  by  (2) 
violet  vio'l  (3) 
violet-colored  violet't 
visit  beso'k  n.  (5) 
visit  beso'ka  (lib) 
voice  rost  (3) 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


297 


W 

wagon  vagn  (2) 

wait  vanta  (I) 

walk  ga  (gick,  gingo,  gatt);  go 

out  for  a  —  ga  ut  och  ga 
wander  vandra  (I) 
wandering  vandring  (2) 
want  to  vilja  (ville,  velat) 
war  krig  n.  (5) 
warm  varm 
wash  tvatta  (I) 
wafer  vatten  n.  (5) 
water  vattna  (I) 
wave  vag  (1);  bolja  (1) 
way  vag  (2) 
we  vi  (oss) 
weak  svag 

weapon  vapen  n.  (5) 
weary;  grow  —  trottna  (I) 
weather  vader  «.  (5) 
Wednesday  onsdag  (2) 
vecka  (1) 

grata  (grat,  gratit) 
weigh  vaga  (Ha) 
ze/£//  val,  bra,  gott;  frisk;  ja,  jo 
wet  vat 
zf/ml  vad 
wheat  vete 

wheat-roll  vetebulle  (2) 
zf//<?<?/  hjul  «.  (5) 
when  nar,  da 
where  var,  dar 
wherever    (  =  whither')  vart 
whether  om 
which  som;  from  —  varifran  (or 

-fra'n);  o«  —  varpa  (or  -pa) 
while  medan 
whirl  virvla  (I); — aoow/svinga 

sig  (I) 


whirlwind  virvelvind  (2) 

whisper  viska  (I) 

white  vit 

whither  vart 

a/Ao  vem,  som 

whole  hel 

z# A_y  varfor  (or  -fo'r) 

widow  anka  (1) 

zercVftA  bredd  (3) 

Zf//^  hustru  (-r) 

wild  vild 

zf///  konima  att,  skola,  vilja  (vil- 
le, velat) 

wind  vind  (2) 

window  fonster  n.  (5) 

ze/zW  vin  n.  (3) 

wing  vinge  (2) 

winter  v inter  (2) 

wisdom  visdom;  words  of —  vis- 
domsord 

wish  to  vilja  (ville,  velat) 

with  med;  hos 

wither  vissna  (I) 

withered  vissen 

within  inom 

without  utan 

woman  kvinna  (1) 

wonder  under  n.  (5) 

wonder  undra  (I) 

wonderful  underbar 

woods  skog  (2) 

wool  ull 

word  ord  «.  (5);  words  of  wis- 
dom visdomsord 

work  arbete  n.  (4) 

work  arbeta  (I) 

world  varld  (2);  jord  (2) 

worse  varre 

would  skulle 

write  skriva  (skrev,  skrivit) 


298 


ENGLISH-SWEDISH  VOCABULARY 


year  ar  n.  (5) 
yellow  gul 
yes  ja,  jo 

yesterday  i  gar;  —  morning  i  gar 
morse 


yet  annu  (or  annu'),  an 

yield  vika  (vek,  vikit) 

you  du  (dig);  ni  (er);  I    (eder) 

young  ung 

your,  yours  din  (ditt,  dina);  er, 

eder 
yourself  dig,  er,  eder 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


299 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Note.  —  References  are  to  paragraphs  unless  p.  (=  page)  precedes 
reference;  n.  =  note;  fn.  =  foot-note.   Coll.  =  colloquial. 

abbreviations,  use  of  period,  25          lativein  predicate,  164;  numer- 
ablaut,  see  vowel-change 
abstract  nouns,  def.  form,  125; 

abstract  nouns  in  -an,    def.  = 

indef.,  Appendix,  II,  2,  i 
accent  (acute,  grave),   3;    4;    5; 


see  also    under    heading   AC- 


als,  313;  318);  predicate  adj. 
indefinite,  148;  predicate  adj. 
inflected,  p.  16,  fn.  i;  p.  25, 
fn.  3;  predicate  superlative  un- 
inflected,  164;  comparison,  158- 
167;  see  also  proper  adjective 


CENT    in    each    lesson;     for      adverbs,  171;   172;    comparison, 


stress,  see  stress 

action,  see  terminative,  cursive, 
point-action,  durative,  com- 
pleted 

acute,  see  accent 


173',  T74;  pronominal  adv.  com- 
pounds, 172,  i,  n.  2  (cf.  264, 
n.  4;  267,  n.  3;  281,  n.  3;  289, 
n.);  order  of  (movable)  ad- 
verbs, 141;  see  negatives 


address,    familiar    and    formal,      agreement,     of     predicate  adj. 


35;  49',  and  n.  i;  coll.  (use  of 
title),  39,  2;  p.  17,  fn.  2  and 
3;  def.  adj.  in  address,  147,  4; 
street-address,  322 


with  subject,  p.  16,  fn.  i;  p. 
25,  fn.  3;  of  verb  with  subject, 
coll.,  53,  i;  after  det,  235,  n.; 
267,  n.  i;  p.  207,  fn.  i 


adjective,  29;  60;  64;  76-79;  147-  alphabet,  i;  names  of  letters,  20 
153;  indefinite  form,  29;  60;  64;  animate  vs.  inanimate,  gender, 
76;  151;  definite  form,  77-79; 
151;  no  cases,  55,  n.;  gen.  form 


when  used  substantively,   150, 


28,  i,  and  n.  r  (cf.  p.  35,  fn. 
3);  pronouns,  36;  genitive,  56; 
118;  119  (coll.,  134,  2) 


end;  163;  164;  cf.    265;  use   of      apostrophe,  with  proper  nouns 


def.  form,  77;  147;  p.    91,    fn. 
i  and  2;    use  of   indef.   form, 


in  s-sound,   112;  otherwise  not 
used  in  genitive,  55 


76;  148;  omission  of  prepos.  ar-      article,  see  indefinite  article,  def- 
ticle,  149  (cf.   p.    91,    fn.     i);  inite    article    (form),   preposi- 

used  as  nouns,  150;  notes  on 
inflection,  151;  form  in  -e,  151, 
n.  8;  declension  of  liten,  152; 
indecl.  adj.,  153  (comparison, 


158,  n.  2;  165;   p.    103,   fn.    i; 
used  as  adv.,   173,  end;  super- 


tive  definite  article 
auxiliaries,  247-263  (with  refer- 
ences to  other  parts  of  the 
grammar);  conjugation,  also 
194,  5  (cf.  p.  23,  fn.  i );  omis- 
sion of  att,  p.  184,  fn.  i;  auxili- 


300 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


aries  of  future,  136;  auxiliaries 
of  perfect  system,  181;  185,  n. 
i ;  omission  of  auxiliary  of  pres- 
ent perf.  and  past  perf.,  182; 
p.  118,  fn.  6;  p.  150,  fn.  i;  p. 
151,  fn.;  coll.,  191,  i;  auxiliary 
of  perf.  inf.  omitted,  242,  n.  2; 
auxiliary-passive,  222;  223;  cf. 
224;  coll.,  228,  2;  auxiliary-sub- 
junctive, 208,  ff.;  213,  ff.;  coll., 

220,    I 

base-form,  used  for  English 
prepositional  phrase,  120;  geni- 
tive for  base-form,  121 

borrowed  words,  see  foreign 

brands  of,  see  mercantile 

capitalization,  23;  24 

case,  55;  see  genitive,  objective 

class,  see  generic 

colloquialisms,  see  under. head- 
ing COLLOQUIALISMS  in 
each  lesson 

comma,  27 

comparative,  see  comparison 

comparison  of  adjectives,  158- 
167;  -are,  -ast,  158;  -re,  -st, 
159-162  (accent,  see  5,  3  c; 
vowel-modification,  see  n,  b); 
indeclinable  adjectives,  158,  n. 
2;  cf.  165  and  p.  103,  fn.  i; 
declension  of  comparative,  163 
(cf.  153);  declension  of  super- 
lative, 164;  comparison  with 
tnera,  mest,  165;  superlative 
in  case  of  two  objects  com- 
pared, 166;  absolute  use  of  com- 
parative and  superl.,  167 

comparison  of  adverbs,  173;  174 

completed  action,  past  partici- 
ple, 223,  n.;  241,  n. 


compounds,  stress,  2,  6;  syllabi- 
cation, 21 ;  compound  adverbs, 
172,  i,  and  n.  i  and  2  (coll., 

179,  2);  compound  verbs,  229- 
232;    closely    and    loosely    at- 
tached  verb-composition,  229; 
inseparable,   separable  and  in- 
vertible  compound  verbs,  230; 
inseparable,  separable  and  in- 
vertible  prefixes,  231;  past  par- 
ticiple, 230,  n.   i;  present  par- 
ticiple, p.  180,  fn.;  coll.,  237 

concession,  253,  2;  p.  195,  fn.  2 

concord,  see  agreement 

conditions,  omission  of  om,  146 
(cf.  215,  end);  use  of  sd,  139, 
n.  3  (cf.  coll.,  146,  i);  con- 
trary to  fact,  215;  216 

congressive-action,  see  point- 
action 

conjugation,  180-183;  system  of, 
82;  i  So;  183;  weak  verbs,  80; 

180,  A;  strong  verbs,  81;    180, 
B;    vowel-modification,    n,    c; 
see  also  First  (Second,  Third) 
Weak      Conjugation,      Strong 
Conjugation,      present,      past, 
passive,  etc. 

consonants,  quantity,  7;  pronun- 
ciation, 13-19 
contrary  to  fact,  see  conditions, 

unreal 

conversation,  see  colloquialisms 
cursive  action,  p.  Si,  fn.  2;  222; 
cf.  223,  n.;  p.  162,  fn.  i;   224; 
240,  n.  i;  cf.  p.  188,  fn.  i 
date,  expressions  of,  322 
declension,  54-56;  see  First  (Sec- 
ond, Third,  Fourth,  Fifth)  De- 
clension; for  irregular    nouns, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


301 


see  nouns;  vowel-modification, 
11,  a;  distribution  of  various 
types  of  nouns  inthe  different 
declensions,  Appendix  I 

definite  article,  see  definite 
form  of  noun,  prepositive  def- 
inite article 

definite  form  of  adjectives,  see 
adjective 

definite  form  of  nouns,  40;  41; 
54,  n.;  rules  for  use  of  various 
forms,  Appendix  II,  i;  i  decl., 
58;  2  decl.,  69;  3  decl.,  88;  4 
decl.,  95;  5  decl.,  107;  accent, 
5,  3  d;  52,  i;  -^omitted  (coll.), 
53,  3;  def.  form.  =  iudef.  form, 
Appendix  II,  2;  69,  n.  4  (coll., 
75,  4);  p.  48,  fn.  i;  107,  n.  3; 
113;  after  demonstratives,  268; 
denna  (coll.),  39,  i;  vilken- 
dera,  287;  bdda,  b&gge,  300; 
-dera,  306;  def.  form  with  poss. 
pron.  (coll.),  67,  4;  def.  form  of 
titles,  39,  2;  129;  syntax  of  def. 
form,  125-130;  abstract,  mate- 
rial, class  (generic),  125;  dis- 
tributive meaning,  126;  in  place 
of  possessive  pronoun,  127; 
geographical  and  street  names, 
128;  titles,  129;  def.  meaning 
though  indef.  in  form,  see  in- 
def.  form  of  nouns 

demonstratives,  265-271;  coll., 
39,  i;  273,  5-1 1;  sddan,  lika- 
dan,  dylik,  269;  form  of  fol- 
lowing noun  and  adj.,  147,  2; 
268;  269;  special  substantive 
forms,  265;  the  ending  -e,  266, 
n.  i;  dess,  dens,  266,  n.  2; 
den  Mr,  den  dar,  266,  n.  3; 


densamma,  sanima,  266,  n.  4; 
denna,  as  pers.  pronoun,  266, 
n.  5;  densamma,  as  pers.  pro- 
noun, 266,  n.  6;  neuter  with 
predicate  noun  of  any  gender 
or  number,  267,  n.  i;  neuter 
representing  any  expression, 
267,  n.  2;  determinative  use  of 
den,  267  (coll.,  273,  8);  266, 
n.  2;  268,  n.  i ;  adverbial  com  - 
pounds,  267,  n.  3;  summary  of 
uses  of  den,  271 

dentals,  13,  2;  after  r,  13,  3 

deponents,  225;  reciprocal  and 
reflexive,  225,  n.  i;  participles, 
238,  11.  2;  240,  n.  2;  impera- 
tive, 243,  n.  i;  coll.,  228,  3  and 
6 

determinative  pronouns,  see 
demonstratives 

diphthongs,  12 

distributive  meaning  of  def. 
form,  126;  numerals,  319,  3 

durative  action,  245,  and  n.  2; 
p.  188,  fn.  i 

easy  speech,  see  colloquialisms 

elevated  style,  /,  49;  du,  p.  17, 
fn.  2;  see  also  colloquialisms 

emphasis,  order,  p.  83,  fn.  3; 
emphatic  verb-forms,  47 

exclamation  point,  26 

familiar,  see  address 

feminine,  28,  n.  4 

Fifth  Declension,  106-108;  cf.  p. 
46,  fn.  i;  in,  i  (coll.,  117,  6) 

First  Declension,     57-59 

First  Weak  Conjugation,  184; 
185;  1 80,  A;  irregular  verbs, 
185,  n.  2;  191,  3  (coll.);  stem, 
p.  117,  fn. 


302 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


foreign  words,  alphabet,  i; 
stress,  2,  i;  87,  n.  6  and  7;  90 
(<?);  accent,  5,  i;  diphthongs, 
12;  c,  19,  i  b  and  c;  n,  19,  5 
a  2;  foreign  forms  of  nouns, 
113;  p.  61,  fn.  3;  p.  64,  fn.  i 
and  2;  foreign  nouns  in  3  decl., 
87,  and  n.  7;  cf.  p.  46,  fn.  3; 
in  3  and  5  decl.,  in,  i  (coll., 
117,  6);  nouns  in  -ma,  p.  53, 
fn.  i;  -er  in  5  decl.,  106,  5; 
neuter  of  foreign  adj.  in  -t,  151, 
n.  4;  verbs,  184,  n. 

formal,  see  address 

Fourth  Declension,  94-96;  cf.  p. 
46,  fn.  i 

fractions,  320,  2 

future,  present  used  for  future, 
135;  auxiliary-future,  136;  past 
future,  252,  i;  cf.  261,  i 

future  perfect,  185,  n.  i;  p.  120, 
fn.  3;  coll.,  191,  2 

gender,  28  (cf.  41;  60);  gram- 
matical gender,  28,  n.  3;  nat- 
ural gender,  28,  n.  4;  names 
of  towns,  etc.,  p.  79,  fn.  4;  di- 
alect, p.  35,  fn.  3;  distribution 
of  gender  in  declensions,  see 
the  declensions;  gender  as  dis- 
tributed in  types  of  nouns  in 
the  various  declensions,  Ap- 
pendix I 

generic  use  of  def.  form,  125 

genitive,  55;  paradigm,  59;  prop- 
er nouns,  112;  1 1 8,  end;  for- 
eign gen.,  113,  end;  also  of  in- 
animate, 56;  118  (coll.,  134,  2); 
use  of  prepositional  phrase  for 
genitive,  119  (coll.,  134,  2); 
base-form  of  nouns  indicating 


measure,  etc.,  used  for  gen., 
120;  genitive  of  titles  in  place 
of  possessives,  39,  2;  followed 
by  def.  adj.,  147,  i;  gen.  of 
personal  pronouns,  62;  gen. 
used  for  base-form,  121;  till 
with  gen.,  122;  in  adverbs,  172, 
3;  no  gen.  of  adjectival  words, 
55,  n.  (cf.  67,  4,  coll.) 

geographical  names,  def.  form, 
128 

grave,  see  accent 

hard  vowels,  10;  cf.  n 

holidays,  names  of,  capital.,  24,  3 

hypothetical  comparison,  215; 
216 

imperative,  243;  of  deponents, 
243,  n.  i;  form  in  -om,  243,  n. 
2;  order  with  subject  expressed, 
243,  n.  3;  same  as  stem,  p. 
117,  fn.;  coll.,  246,  3 

imperfect,  see  past 

impersonal  verbs,  235;  s-form 
(passive),  235.  3 

inanimate,  gender,  28,  2,  and  n. 
2;  36;  p.  35,  fn.  3; gen-,  5^  (coll., 
67,  2);  118;  119;  coll.,  134,  2 

indefinite  article,  31;  p.  22,  fn.; 
no  genitive,  55,  n.;  syntax  of 
(omission),  123;  124 

indefinite  form  of  adjectives, 
see  adjective 

indefinite  form  of  nouns,  40;  p. 
22,  fn.;  titles,  39,  2;  129;  in- 
def.  form  after  denna,  sain- 
ma,  den  (determinative),  268 
and  n.  i;  p.  208,  fn.  i;  de 
fiesta,  298;  indef.  form,  though 
def.  in  meaning,  147;  p.  91,  fn. 
i;  268,  n.  i 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


303 


indefinite  pronouns,  292-309; 
special  substantive  forms,  265; 
indefinite  relatives,  309 

indirect  statement,  infinitive, 
242,  n.  i;  coll.,  246,  2 

infinitive,  242;  cf.  44;  46,  3;  p. 
117,  in.;  future  inf.,  p.  183, 
fn.;  use  and  omission  of  aft, 
242,  i;  inf.  with  prepositions, 
etc.,  242,  2;  indirect  statement, 
242,  n.  i  (coll.,  246,  2);  aux- 
iliary of  perfect  inf.  omitted, 
242,  n.  2;  purpose,  242,  n.  3; 
after  hora,  se,  239,  n.  2;  words 
placed  between  att  and  inf., 
142,  end,  and  n. 

inseparable,  see  compounds 

intensive  pronoun,  see  sjalv 
(index  of  words) 

interrogative  pronouns,  282- 
289;  special  substantive  forms, 
265;  with  som  as  subject  sign, 
289,  i ;  position  of  a  governing 
preposition,  289.  2;  with  som 
heist  (=  indefinites),  308;  ad- 
verbial compounds,  289,  n. 

inversion,  139;  140;  om  omitted, 
140;  215,  end;  questions,  p.  83, 
fn.  i;  imperative,  243,  n.  3 

invertible,  see  compounds 

kinds  of,  see  mercantile 

literary,  see  colloquialisms 

living  beings,  see  animate 

loan-words,  see  foreign 

male  sex,  28,  n.  4;  69,  n.  5;  107, 
n.  5;  151,  n.  8,  b  and  c;  266, 
n.  i;  Appendix  III,  I 

masculine,  28,  n.  4;  p.  35,  fn. 
3;  cf.  male  sex 


material,  nouns   of,    def.   form, 

125;  p.  74,  fn.  i 

measure,  nouns  indicating,  106, 
4;  use  of  base-form,  120 

mercantile  plural,  p.  46,  fn.  2 

modal,  see  auxiliaries 

modification  of  vowels,  u;  2 
decl.,  68,  n.  4;  3  decl.,  87,  n.  4 
and  5;  5  decl.,  106,  3;  list  of 
nouns,  Appendix  I,  4;  compar- 
ative, 159-162;  II  conj.,  p.  128, 
fn.  i;  194,  i  and  2 

monosyllabic  infinitives,  verbs 
with,  44;  cf.  46;  195  and  n.  2; 
203,  i  and  2;  coll.,  207,  i;  no 
pres.  ^-subjunctive,  208,  n.  i; 
never  -om  in  imperative,  243, 
n.  2 

monosyllabic  nouns,  68,  i  and 
2;  87,  i  (cf.  n.  4);  94,  i;  109; 
distribution  of  monosyllables 
in  various  declensions,  Appen- 
dix I,  i;  accent  with  def.  ar- 
ticle, 52,  i  (cf.  §  5) 

months,  names  of,  capital.,  24, 
3;  base-form  for  gen.,  120,  end 

mutation,  see  modification 

negatives,  100;  order,  101;  141; 
139,  n.  i;  142,  n.;  use  of  jo,  p. 
57,  fn.  5 

nouns,  syntax,  Lesson  IX;  irreg- 
ular nouns,  109,  ff.;  see  the 
various  declensions  (First, 
Second,  Third,  Fourth,  Fifth), 
proper  nouns,  genitive,  gen- 
der, foreign  words,  declension, 
etc. 

number,  see  measure,  singular, 
plural 


304 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


numerals,  312-322;  list  of  cardi- 
nals and  ordinals,  312;  remarks 
on  cardinals,  313-317;  remarks 
on  ordinals,  318;  formations 
connected  with  cardinals,  319; 
formations  connected  with  or- 
dinals, 320;  expressions  of  time, 
321;  date,  address,  322;  vise  of 
prepositive  article,  p.  92,  fn.  4 

object,  see  order 

objective  case,  186;  187;  264; 
coll.,  191,  5;  in  indirect  state- 
ment, 242,  n.  i;  after  det  &r 
(var),  264,  n.  3;  after  an 
(coll.),  273,  2 

optative,  p.  149,  fn.  i 

order  of  words,  139-142;  p.  83, 
fn.  3;  cf.  p.  21,  fn.;  inversion, 
139;  inversion  with  om  omit- 
ted, 140;  see  also  inversion; 
subordinate  clauses,  140;  nega- 
tive words,  141;  p.  23,  fn.  2; 
101;  139,  n.  i;  movable  words 
(including  negative  words), 
141;  p.  85,  fn.  i;  modifiers, 
142  and  n.;  coll.,  146,  5;  att 
with  inf.,  142;  questions,  p.  83, 
fn.  i;  imperative,  243,  n.  3; 
wishes,  p.  151,  fn.;  compound 
verbs,  229;  230;  position  of  ob- 
ject, adverbs,  etc.,  in  loosely 
attached  form  of  verb-compo- 
sition, 230,  n.  2;  position  of 
verb  in  rel.  clause  with  rel. 
subject  omitted,  281,  n.  2;  prep- 
ositions with  rel.  and  interrog. 
pronouns,  281,  n.  i;  289,  2;  gen- 
itive and  noun,  p.  28,  fn.  i; 
possessives  after  noun  (coll.), 
67,  4;  street  names  and  num- 


bers, p.  79,  fn.  2;  order  with 
dd,  dar,  ndr,  139,  n.  2;  ock, 
ocksd,  aven,  med,  105,  5;  for 
.  .  .  sedan,  p.  125,  fn.  2;  se 
.  .  .  ut,  p.  125,  fn.  i;  vad  .  .  . 
for,  286;  vilken  .  .  .  som  heist, 
308 

orthography,  see  under  heading 
ORTHOGRAPHY  in  Lessons 
II,  IV,  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII,  IX, 
X,  XI,  XIII 

participle,  past,  240;  241;  cf.  221, 
n.  2;  coll.,  246,  i;  -ade,  151,  n.  8 
a;  comparison,  165;  connection 
with  supine,  181;  p.  160,  fn. 
i;  compound  verbs,  230,  n.  i; 
deponents,  240,  n.  2;  in  auxili- 
ary-passive, 222;  cf.  223,  n. 

participle,  present,  238;  239; 
coll.,  246,  i;  compound  verbs, 
p.  180,  fn.;  indeclinable,  153; 
comparison,  165;  clause  in 
place  of  circumstantial  parti- 
ciple, 239,  n.  i;  with  prepos. 
article,  107,  n.  6 

passive,  221-224;  ^-passive,  221; 
222,  n.  2;  auxiliary-passive, 
222;  223;  distinction  in  use  be- 
tween 5-passive  and  auxiliary- 
passive,  222,  n.  2  (cf.  coll.,  228, 
2);  -(e)s,  221,  n.  i  (cf.  225,  n. 
2;  accent,  227,  2);  substitutes 
for  passive  (man,  221,  n.  4;  see 
man  in  index  of  words;  active, 
coll.,  228,  i);  agent,  221,  n.  3 
(cf.  228,  i,  coll.);  past  partici- 
ple, 221,  n.  2  (see  participle); 
past  part,  used  as  adj.,  223,  n.; 
impersonal  use  of  ^-passive, 
235»  3;  imperative,  243,  n.  i; 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


305 


coll.,  228,  1-6;  the  so-called 
false  passive,  or  quasi-passive, 
223,  n. 

past,  weak,  So;  180,  A;    strong, 
Si;  99;  180,  B;  past  of  vara  for 
present,    244    (coll.,    246,    4); 
-a(de),  coll.,  191,  4 
past  perfect,  181;  cf.  182 
perfect,  see  present  perfect,  past 

perfect 

period,  in  abbreviations,  25 
personal  pronouns,  264  (coll., 
273-  i-4);  35;  36;  495  us«  of  neu- 
'  ter  del  to  represent  any  expres- 
sion, 264,  n.  2;  dct  &r,  detvar 
(emphatic)  with  objective,  264, 
n.  3;  £(de)rs,  264,  n.  5;  din 
lymmel,  264,  n.  6;  reciprocal! 
264,  n.  8;  intensive,  see  sjalv 
(index  of  words);  genitive,  62 
(cf.  67,  3  and  4,  coll.);  186  (cf. 
187);  coll.,  39,  2;  coll.,  191,  5 
and  6;  dcnsamma,  266,  n.  6 
(coll.,  273,  10);  denna,  266,  n. 
5  (coll.,  273,  10);  pers.  pronoun 
repeated,  273,  3  (coll.);  ad- 
verbial compounds,  264,  n.  4 
pluperfect,  see  past  perfect 
plural,  endings,  54  (for  details, 
see  the  First,  Second,  Third, 
Fourth,  Fifth  Declension); 
plural  without  ending,  54;  106; 
nouns  with  more  than  one  plu- 
ral, p.  46,  fn.  2;  ii i ;  p.  63,  fn. 
i  (coll.,  117,  6);  plural  subject 
with  singular  verb  (coll.),  53, 
i ;  vowel-modification,  n,  a;  68, 
n.  4;  87,  n.  4  and  5;  106,  3; 
shortening  of  vowel,  87.  n.  5; 
106,  n.  i;  stress-shift,  87,  n.  6 


point-action,  p.  188,  fn.  2;  245, 
n.  i 

polite,  see  address 

possessive  pronouns,  264;  32; 
48;  61;  also  reflexive,  62,  n.; 
188;  reflexive  possessive  (sin), 
1 88;  after  noun  (coll.),  67,  4; 
followed  by  def.  adj.,  147,  i; 
preceded  by  prepos.  article  (de 
tnina),  264,  n.  7;  used  for 
pers.  pronoun  (din  lymmel}, 
264,  n.  6;  def.  form  used  for 
poss.,  127;  see  genitive  of  per- 
sonal pronouns 

postpositive  definite  article, 
see  definite  article  (form) 

prefixes,  stress,  2,  2  (for  accent, 
cf.  5,  i);  see  compounds 

prepositions,  with  inf.,  242,  2  a; 
following  rel.  pronoun,  275; 
276,  n.  i  c;  278,  2;  279;  281,  and 
n.  i;  coll.,  291,  5;  following  in- 
terrog.  pronoun,  289,  2;  coll., 
291,  6;  prep,  phrase  used  for 
gen.,  119;  coll.,  134,  2;  till 
with  gen.,  122;  prep,  in  pro- 
nominal adv.  compounds,  172, 
i,  n.  2 

prepositive  definite  article,  78; 
79;  with  indef.  noun,  167;  omit- 
ted, 149;  cf.  p.  91,  fn.  i 

present,  43;  cf.  44-46;  used  to 
express  future  time,  135 

present  perfect,  181;  cf.  182; 
used  for  future  perfect,  185, 
n.  i 

principal  parts,  definition  of, 
183,  n.;  principal  parts  of 
strong  and  irregular  verbs,  see 
Appendix  IV 


306 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


progressive,  47;  245;  239,  n.  4 

progressive-action,  see  durative 

pronominal  adverbs,  172,  i,  n.  2 

pronouns,  no  gen.  of  adj.  pro- 
nouns, 55,  n.;  gen.  of  substan- 
tive pronouns,  265;  pronouns 
in  address,  see  address;  see 
personal,  possessive,  demon- 
strative, relative,  interrogative, 
indefinite,  reflexive,  intensive, 
reciprocal  deponents 

pronunciation,  stress,  2;  accent, 
3-5;  quantity,  6;  7;  vowels,  S-n; 
diphthongs,  12;  consonants,  13- 
19;  pronunciation  of  letters  of 
alphabet,  20;  see  also  Lessons 
I-XVIH  under  heading  PRO- 
NUNCIATION 

proper  adjectives,  capital.,  24,  2 

proper  nouns,  gen.  of,  when 
ending  in  s-sound,  112;  gen.  of 
place  names,  118,  end;  with 
def.  adj. ,.147,  3;  proper  group 
names,  capital.,  24,  4;  cf.  24,  2 

punctuation,  25-27;  see  also 
apostrophe 

purpose,  242,  n.  3 

quantity,  6;  7;  see  also  frequent 
remarks  under  heading  of 
PRONUNCIATION  in  Lessons 
I-XVIII 

questions,  order,  p.  83,  fn.  i; 
no  auxiliary-verb,  47 

reciprocal  deponents,  225  n.  i; 
cf.  228,  3  (coll.);  pronoun, 
264,  n.  8 

reflexive  pronouns,  personal 
and  possessive,  187;  188;  264; 
233;  234 

reflexive  verbs,  233;  234;  reflex- 


ive deponents,    225,    n.    i;    cf. 

233,  »•  3 

relationship,  nouns  indicating, 
def.  form  instead  of  possess- 
ive, 127 

relative  pronouns,  274-281;  spe- 
cial substantive  forms,  265;  rel- 
ative omitted,  281,  and  n.  2; 
followed  by  adj.  in  def.  form, 
p.  91,  fn.  2;  use  of  rel.  clauses, 
coll.,  291,  i;  adverbial  com- 
pounds, 281,  n.  3;  see  also  in- 
definite relatives  under  indefi- 
nite pronouns 

restrictive,  see  determinative 

Second  Declension,  68-70 

Second  Weak  Conjugation,  192- 
194;  180,  A;  irregular  verbs,  194; 
191,  3  (coll.);  stem,  p.  117,  fn. 

semicolon,  26 

separable,  see  compounds 

singular  verb  with  plural  sub- 
ject, coll.,  53,  i;  with  ni,  49 

soft  vowels,  10;  cf.  n;  14;  19, 
i  b;  19,  2  b 

spoken  language,  see  colloquial- 
isms 

stem-vowel  of  verbs,  p.  117,  fn. 

street-names,  def.  form  used, 
128,  end 

stress,  2;  cf.  3;  4;  <?,  90;  titles  be- 
fore proper  names,  p.  19,  fn.  3; 
prefix  o-,  p.  51,  fn.  2;  adverbial 
compounds,  172,  i,  n.  i;  affix 
in  compound  verbs,  229;  230; 
stress-shift  in  nouns,  87,  n.  6 

Strong  Conjugation,  200-203;  Si; 
97-99;  i  So,  B;  181;  irregular 
verbs,  203;  p.  139,  fn.;  stem, 
p.  117,  fn. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


307 


style,  see  colloquialisms 

subjunctive  (^-subj.  and  aux- 
iliary-subj.),  208-216;  forms, 
208-212;  meaning  of  tenses,  213; 
wishes,  214;  unreal  conditions 
and  hypothetical  comparisons, 
215;  summary,  216;  passive, 
221;  p.  159,  fn.;  no  present 
subj.  of  verbs  whose  inf.  ends 
in  stressed  vowel,  208,  n.  i; 
vowel  of  past  subj.  in  strong 
verbs,  208,  n.  2;  coll.,  220,  i; 
for  concession,  see  concession 

superlative,  declension  of,  164 
(cf.  p.  102,  fn.  2);  absolute  use, 
167;  -astc,  151,  n.  8  a;  used  with 
indef.  noun,  167;  p.  91,  fn.  i; 
superlative  of  two  objects  com- 
pared, 166;  vowel-modification, 
ii,  b;  see  comparison 

supine,  181  (cf.  p.  160,  fn.  i); 
vowel  of  supine  in  strong  verbs, 
201,  n.  i;  cf.  coll.,  207,  6; 
used  alone  in  present  and  past 
perfect,  182;  cf.  p.  150,  fn.  i; 
p.  151,  fn.  (coll.,  191,  i);  su- 
pine alone  in  perfect  inf.,  242, 
n.  2;  supine  after  auxiliary  in- 
stead of  infinitive,  coll.,  263; 
-at,  coll.,  191,  4;  -it,  coll.,  207,  3 

supradentals,  13,  3 

syllabication,  21;  22 

syntax,  of  noun,  Lesson  IX 

tense,  see  present,  past,  present 
perfect,  past  perfect,  future, 
future  perfect 

terminative  action,  p.  Si,  fn.  2; 
223,  n.;  224;  240,  n.  i;  241,  n.; 
p.  188,  fn.  2;  249,  n.  i 

Third  Declension,  87-89;  p.   53, 


fn.  i,  p.  60,  fn.  i,  cf.  in,  i 
(coll.,  117,  6);  accent,  5,  3  b 

third  person  singular,  without 
ending  -r,  136,  n.  2;  193,  n.; 
202,  n.;  p.  148,  fn.  3;  cf.  pas- 
sive, 221 

Third  Weak  Conjugation,  195; 
180,  A;  irregular  verbs,  195,  n. 
i;  p.  132,  fn.;  stem,  p.  117,  fn. 

time,  expressions  of,  321 

titles,  capital.,  24,  i;  used  in 
address,  coll.,  39,  2;  def.  and 
indef.  form,  129  (cf.  39,  2); 
lagga  bort  titlarna,  p.  19,  fn. 
5;  unstressed,  p.  19,  fn.  3;  herr, 
68,  n.  5;  furst,  p.  34,  fn.  2; 
-ar(e),  106,  n.  2;  with  imper- 
ative, p.  186,  fn. 

tone,  3;  4 

umlaut,  see  modification 

unreal  conditions,  215;  216; 
clauses  of  hypothetical  com- 
parison, 215;  216 

verbal  noun,  239,  n.  3 

verbs,  stem-vowels,  p.  117,  fn.; 
see  Conjugation,  First  (Second, 
Third)  Weak  Conjugation, 
Strong  Conjugation,  Subjunc- 
tive, Infinitive,  etc.,  progres- 
sive, action,  reflexive,  past, 
present  perfect,  vowel-change, 
etc.;  irregular  verbs,  see  under 
the  various  conjugations  and 
Appendix  IV 

vowel-change  in  strong  verbs, 
81;  97-99;  200;  201;  cf.  p.  57, 
fn.  2;  p.  138,  fn.  7;  136,  n.  i; 
138,  n.  2 

vowels,  quantity,  6;  pronuncia- 
tion, 8;  9;  hard  and  soft,  io;mod- 


308  INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 

ification,    n;    diphthongs,     12  wish,  214;  summary,  216;  p.  149, 

weak  verbs,     80;    180,    A;    see  fn.   i;  order,  p.  151,  fn. 

First   (Second,   Third)    Weak  word-order,  see  order 

Conjugation  written  language,  see  colloqui- 

weight,  see  measure  alisms 


INDEX  OF  WORDS 


309 


INDEX  OF  WORDS. 

Note.  —  References  are  to  paragraphs,  unless  preceded  by  p. 
(=page);  fn.  =  foot-note;  n.  =  note. 

The  accent  (i.  e.,  primarily  the  acute  accent)  is  given  only  for 
words  whose  accent  has  been  mentioned  in  the  lessons;  ac.  =  acute; 
gr.  =  grave;  acgr.  =  acute  or  grave.  Reference  is  rarely  made  to 
the  paragraph  in  which  the  accent  is  given. 

For  the  pronunciation,  reference  is  made  not  to  the  paragraph  in 
which  each  word  is  mentioned  in  the  lessons,  but  to  the  place  in 
the  introduction  on  sounds  or  the  Phonology  to  which  reference 
is  there  made.  A  reference  to  pronunciation  is  preceded  by  pr.; 
Phon.  =  Phonology. 

Coll.  =  colloquial;  orth.  =  orthography.  Other  abbreviations  will 
be  clear.  For  compounds  in  -dag(s)  see  this. 


acceptera,  ac.;  pr.,  19, 

alltid,  order,  141;  pr., 

arme',  orth.,  90 

i  bz 

coll.,  146,  7 

artikel,  ac.;  pr.,  6,  n.  i 

-ad,  3decl.,  p.  46,  fn. 

allting,  ac.;  307 

associera,  ac.;  pr.,  19, 

3 

alltjamt,  stress,  p.  165, 

i  bi 

-a(de),  past,  coll.,  191, 

fn.  2 

-a(t),     supine,     coll., 

4 

Amerika,  ac. 

191,  4 

aderton,  pr.,  coll.,  324, 

-ande,  pres.  part.,  238; 

atlantisk,  ac. 

i;  p.  245,  fn.  i 

verbal  noun,   239,   n. 

att    (=to),  omission, 

adjektiv,  decl.,  in,  i 

3;  5  decl.,  106,  2;  107, 

242,   i;  cf.  242,  n.  i; 

Adolf,  acgr. 

n.  6;   Appendix  I,  2, 

purpose,    242,    n.    3; 

a/ton,  68,  n.  3 

n.  i 

pr.,     coll.,      86,      2; 

aj,  pr.,  12 

andra,     usually     gr.; 

(=that),    inversion, 

aldrig,  order,  141  ;pr., 

318;  see  annan 

p.  84,  fn.  2;  omission, 

coll.,  75,  8 

annan,  294;  coll.,  311, 

coll.,  p.  43,  fn.3;246, 

all,  297;  cf.  allt 

5;  en—  ,  294,  n.  i;  en 

2 

al  Ira,  usually  gr.  ;  with 

och(eller)  —  ,  294,  n.  2 

au,  pr.,  12 

superl.,  175 

april,  pr.,  6,  n.  i 

av,  119;  120;  221,  n.  3; 

alls,  172,  3 

-are,   compar.,    158;  5 

pr.,  coll.,  86,  5 

ullt,    adv.   with    corn- 

decl.,  106,  2;  107,  n. 

t>,  pr.,  18 

par.,     175;    pronoun, 

5;  Appendix  I,  2,  n.  i 

bakom,  stress,  p.   144, 

with  vad,   278,   2;  p. 

-arie,  decl.,  Appendix 

fn.  2 

217,  fn.;  cf.  all 

I,  2,  n.  i 

bakre,  compar.,  162 

3io 


INDEX  OF  WORDS 


bank,  decl.,  p.  63,  fn.  i 

bid,  inflex.,   151,  n.   5 

Cederschiold,  pr.,  132, 

bara,  coll.,  86,  i 

and  7 

b 

barn,  gender,  28,  n.  i; 

bok,  plur.,  accent,  92, 

f/i,  pr.,  19,  i  a  and  c 

pr.,  6,  n.  2;  13,  3 

1587,  n.  5;  p.  63.  fn.  i 

££,  pr.,  19,  i  a  and  4 

be,  203,  2;  pres.  part., 

bonde,   plur.,    accent, 

d,  pr.,  13.  2;  cf.  13,  3; 

238,  n.  i;  coll.,  207, 

92,  i;pr.,  9,  3  a 

silent,  16  and  c;  18 

i;  see  bedja 

bord,  pr.,  13,  3;  6,  n.  2 

</«£•,  pr.,   coll.,  75,  8; 

be-,  accent,  236;  stress, 

bort,  borta,  172,  2,  n.; 

p.  37,  fn. 

2,2;  229  ,i;insep.,  231 

bortre,  compar.,  162 

dagakarl,  pr.,  16,  a 

bedja,  200;  203,  2;  p. 

botaniker,  usually  ac. 

</oo-.y,     adv.,      172,  3; 

142,  fn.  i;  p.  138,  fn. 

bra,  153;  compar.,  161; 

-dag(s),   ac.,    178,  3; 

6;  pres.  part.,  238',  n. 

174,   2 

pr.,     18;     Phon.    38; 

i;  coll.,  207,  i 

bringa,  194,  2  and  4;  p.     orth.,  24,  3 

begrava,  ac.;  conjuga- 

131, fn.  i;   coll.,   199,    Danmark,&c. 

tion,  p.  139,  fn.  i 

5;   bragt(e),  pr.,   18;    de,  coll.,  53,  5    (pr.); 

begynna,    ac.;     conj., 

Phon.  38,  n. 

191,  6;  311,  3;  see<fe« 

192,  b;  coll.,  199,  5 

bro(de}r,  accent,  116, 

-<fe/,    -dels,    fractions, 

behandla,  ac. 

2;  106,  3  and  n.  2;  p. 

320,  2;  coll.,  324,  3 

beharska,  ac. 

61,  fn.  i  and  2;  coll., 

rf<?/a,  coll.,  191,  3 

behova,  ac. 

iij.  7 

dels,  adv.,  172,  3 

belagring,  ac. 

bror,  see  broder 

dent,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;coll., 

berg,  pr.,  9,  i  c;  19,  2 

bryna,  p.  128,  fn.  5 

191,  6;  see  dfe,  <fe« 

a  2 

brat  torn,  acgr. 

den,    article,    78;   per-- 

beratta,  ac. 

brod,  pr.,   coll.,  93,  3 

sonal,  36;  1  86,  andu.; 

berattelse,  ac. 

byggt,  pr.,   18;  Phon. 

264;  pr.,  9,  i  c;  6,  n. 

betrakta,  ac. 

33 

i;  coll.,    191,   5;   de- 

betydelse,  ac. 

bdda,  300;  coll.,  311,2 

monstr.,  266;  267;  268 

bi,  gender,  28,  n.  i 

bddadera,   306;    coll., 

and  n.  i;  cf.  281,  n.  2; 

bi-,  insep.,  231 

3".  2 

coll.,  273,  8;  relative, 

bibliotek,  decl.^  in,  i 

bdde,  usually  gr. 

274;    279;    281,   n.  i; 

Birgitta,  pr.,  155,  b 

backen,  def.  sing.,  p. 

coll.,  291,  4;  summa- 

Bjorkman, ac. 

61,  fn.  4 

ry,  271;  p.  209,  fn.  i; 

bli,  see  bliva 

bcigge(dera}  seebdda- 

see    de,     det,     dein, 

blind,  pr.,  coll.,  157,  4 

(dera) 

dess,  dens,  deras 

bliva,20$,  2;  138;  pres. 

bara,  200 

den    dar,    demonstr., 

part.,  238,  n.  i;  aux- 

battre, p.  no,  fn.  5 

266,  and  n.   3;   coll., 

iliary,  250;  222;  coll., 

bora,  259 

273»   5'.  relative,  274; 

207,  i 

borja,  coll.,  199,  5 

280;  stress,  p.  218,  fn.; 

blom-ma,  pr.,  9,  3  a 

c,  pr.,  19,  i 

coll.,  291,  4 

d/0tf,coll.,86,  i 

cc,  pr.,  19,  i  b  2 

den  ena,  see  en 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 


den  Mr,  39,  i;  266  and 

detsamma;  i  —  ,  270; 

-dubbel,  319,  2;  p.  242, 

n.  3 

see  densamma 

fn.  2;  coll.,  324,  4 

denna,  pr.,  9,  i  c;  266; 

delta,  representing  any 

dylik,  269;  coll.,  273, 

268;  cf.    267,    n.    1-3; 

expression,  267,  n.  2; 

9 

coll.,  39,  i;  273,  7;  p. 

see  denna 

dd,  139,  n.  2;  p.  88,  fn. 

211,     fn.;     as     pers. 

dig,  coll.,  191,  6;  see 

5;  p.  127,  fn.  i 

pronoun,    266,    n.    5; 

du 

ddlig(t),  compar.,  161 

coll.,  273,  10;  -e,  266, 

din,   pr.,  6,  n.  i;  65; 

and  n.  ;  pr.  ,  coll.  ,  1  70,  4 

n.  i 

capital.,  23;  264;   32; 

ddr,  139,  n.  2 

dennes,     idiom,     270; 

35;  in  poetry  and  ele- 

darfor, ac. 

coll.,  273,  9 

vated  style,  p.  17,  fn. 

darinne,  see  in 

dens,   266,   n.    2;  267; 

2;  coll.,  39,  2  end 

do,  203,  i 

coll.,  273,  6;  see  den 

distrikt,  decl.,  in,  i 

dodlig,  pr.,  Phon.  14, 

den    samma,   p.    204, 

dit,  139,  n.  2 

B2   C 

fn.  2 

djup,  pr.,  16 

dods,  see  till 

densanima,  acgr.;  266 

djur,  pr.,  1  6 

^,90 

and  n.  4;  as  pers.  pro- 

djavul, pr.,  16;  decl., 

-^,  3  decl.,  p.  46,  fn.  3 

noun,  266,  n.  6;  coll., 

68,  n.  3 

-e  in  adj.,  151,  n.  8; 

273,  10;  -e,  266,  n.  I 

d:o,  25 

coll.,    157,  i;  cf.  Ap- 

-dera, indefinite   pro- 

docent, pr.,  19,  i  b  i; 

pendix  III 

nouns,  306 

as  title,  129 

^-subjunctive,         208; 

deras,  62;  264;  not  re- 

doktor, accent,  92,    4 

concession,     p.     195. 

flex.,  i  88;  see  den 

and  5;  decl..  87,  n.  6 

fn.    2;   pass.,  p.  159, 

dess,  personal,  62;  264; 

dom  (  =  dent),   coll., 

fn.;  coll.,  220,  i 

not  reflex.,  188;  coll., 

53,4 

eder,  264;  accent,  272; 

67,  3;  demonstr.,  266 

-dom,  2  decl.,  68,  4 

capital.,      23;     coll., 

and  n.  2;  idiom,  270; 

dotler,  accent,  74,    2; 

273,  4;  see  / 

coll.,  273,  6;  see  den 

decl.,  68,  n.  4;  p.  35, 

£(de)rs,  264,  n.  5 

dess,  adv.  with  comp., 

fn.  2 

efter,  ac. 

175;  coll.,  179,  3 

dr,  25 

cgen,  303;  147,  n.;pr., 

desto,  usually  gr.;  see 

dra(ga),   200;  203,  2; 

coll.,  157,  3 

preceding  word 

pres.  part.,  238,  n.  i; 

Egypten,  ac. 

dct,  pr.,  9,  i  c  (coll., 

coll.,  207,  i  and  2 

egyptier,  ac.;  pr.,  14; 

39.      6);      expletive, 

drottning,  coll.,  75,  7 

19.  7  b  3 

235,  n.;  representing 

Drottninggatan,  coll., 

ej,  pr.,  12;  negatives, 

any  expression,  264, 

134,  6 

100;  p.  55,  fn. 

n.  2;  267,  n.  2;  det  ar, 

du,   capital.,   23;  use, 

-el,      distribution     of 

with  objective,   264, 

35;  p.  17,  fn.  2  and  3; 

nouns  in  various  de- 

n. 3;  coll.,  191,  5;  see 

39,  2  end;  264 

clensions,    Appendix 

den 

dubbel,  319,  2 

1,3 

3I2 


INDEX  OF  WORDS 


elak,      compar.,     161 

ent-,    231  and  p.  172,  j  Fain  (gruva),  118,  end 

and  n. 

fn.  2                               \far,  szz  fader 

element,  decl.,  in,  i 

entlcdiga,  p.  172,  fn.  2  l/ara,  200 

eller,  ac. 

envar,  295;  coll.  ,311,  2  fattig(t),      pr.,       18; 

-else,  3  decl.,  p.  46,  fn. 

^,  32;  35',  48;  49.  n-  2; 

Phon.  38;  coll.,  191,6 

3;   p.    47,   fn.  3;  Ap- 

264; coll.,  39,  2;  273, 

feber,  ac. 

pendix  I,  2,  n.  i 

4;  see  /,  m,  eder 

fern,  pr.,  6,  n.  i 

en,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  article, 

er-,  insep.,  231 

filosofie,  113 

31;     numeral,      313; 

-er,      distribution     of 

Finland,  ac.  ;  pr.,  coll., 

stress,   p.    78,   fn.   2; 

nouns  in  various  de- 

157,4 

pronoun,    304;   coll., 

clensions,    Appendix 

firings;  del—  ,235,  n. 

311,  3;  p.  233,  fn.  3; 

1,3 

fjdrdedel,   320,  2  and 

cf.  305,  n.  i;  en  i  s&n- 

-era,    accent,    190,  i; 

n/2;  coll.,  324,  3 

der,  en  och  en,  coll.. 

stress,  2,  3;  i   conj., 

fjdril,  69,  n.  2;  coll., 

324,5  (cf.aig,  3);«* 

184,  n. 

75,  2 

och    annan,   see   an- 

-eri,    stress,    2,    4;    3 

yfera  (-^),  rarely  ac.; 

nan;  en  och  var,  295; 

decl.,  p.  46,  fn.  3 

298 

coll.,  311,  2;  denena, 

-(e}s,  pass.,   221,  n.  i; 

fiesta  (-e),  298 

305;  v  ad  for  en,  see 

225,  n.  2;  coll.,  228,  4 

/or/,  pr.,  9,  3  a;  corn- 

vad 

Esaias,  pr.,  12 

par.,  174,  i 

en,   pr.  (  =  ang),   19, 

-essa,  stress,  2,  3 

fot,  decl.,  87,  n.  5;  106, 

5a2 

'et,    pronoun,      coll., 

4;  p.   63,   fn.    i;   till 

'en,     pronoun,     coll., 

191.  5 

fots,  pr.,  132 

I9L  5 

eu,  pr.,  12 

fotografi,    def.,    coll., 

•en,    distribution     of 

-eum,  3  decl.,  87,    n. 

93,  i 

nouns  in  various  de- 

3; 88,  n.  4;  P-  46,  fn.  3 

fratn,fratnme,  pr.,  6, 

clensions,    Appendix 

Europa,  pr.,Phon.  35 

n.  i;  orth.,  Phon.  18; 

1,3 

evangelium,       acgr.  ; 

172,  2,  n. 

enda  (-e),  302 

pr.,  Phon.  49,  4,  n. 

framfor,   usually  gr.; 

endast,  coll.,  86,  i 

examen,  acgr.  ;  pr.  ,  19, 

stress,  p.  124,  fn.  3 

-ende,  pres.  part.,  238; 

9;  decl.,  113;  p.   64, 

fravndt,  almost  always 

verbal  noun,  239,  n.  3 

fn.  i 

ac. 

endera,  306 

fa(de}r,  decl.,  106,  3 

fri,  inflex.,  151,  n.  5 

cnfaldig,  p.  242,  fn.  2 

and  n.  2;  p.  6r,  fn.  i 

Fridolf,  ac. 

engelsk,  ac.;  pr.,  19,  5 

and  2;  coll.,    117,    7; 

Fritiof,  ac. 

b 

accent,   plur.,  116,  2 

fru,  with  titles,  coll., 

cngelsman,          acgr.  ; 

faktum,  decl.,  113 

39,  2 

orth.,  24,  2 

-faldig,  319,  2;  p.  242, 

fruntimmer,    gender, 

enkel,  319,  2;  p.    242, 

fn.  2;  coll.,  324,  4 

28,    n.    i;  def.  plur., 

fn.  2 

fall  a,  200 

p.  62,  fn.  i 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 


313 


frdmre,  coinpar.,  162 

174,  $;forre,  accent, 

£W,  compar.,  161  and 

fro,  decl.,  p.  46,  fn.  2; 

169,  i  ;  denforre,  320, 

n.;  pr.,  coll.,  105,  6 

p.  63,  fn.  i 

»•  3 

Gottland,     ac.;      pr., 

froken,   ac.;  title,  39, 

forsiktighet,  ac. 

coll.,  117,  10 

2;  def.,  69,  n.  4 

forsiktig(t),    ac.;  pr., 

grov,  compar.,  159  and 

f  under  a,  ac. 

coll.,  146,  7 

n.;  grovt,  grovst,  pr., 

furst(e],    title,  p.  34, 

forsta,  318;  seeforr 

18;    Phon.    38;  coll., 

fn.  2 

forstdndig,  ac. 

170,  4 

fyrti(o],   pr.,   p.   239, 

forsvinna,  ac. 

grd,  inflex.,  151,  n.  5 

fn.  2;  315 

forsdka,  ac. 

and  7 

fyrtionde,  pr.,  p.  239, 

forvara,  ac. 

grata,  200 

fn.  2 

foraldrar,  ac. 

gulna,  pr.,  Phon.  14  B 

fd,  verb,  203,   i;  aux- 

£-, pr.,  13,  4;  14-18;  19, 

2  C 

iliary,      262;    fd  lov 

2;  silent,  16  and  b 

gd,  pr.,  144,  a;  203,  i; 

(att),  262,  2  end;  p. 

Ara/a,  194,  4;  p.  139,  fn. 

progressive,  245,  n.  2 

199.  fn. 

i;  193.  "• 

gang,  decl.,  p.  63,  fn. 

fd,  299;  compar.,  160 

gaminal,    orth.,     154; 

i;    with      numerals, 

fdgel,  ac. 

compar.,  161 

319,  i;  p.  242,  fn.  i 

,/ifr,  gender,  28,  n.  i 

gav,  coll.,  207,  2;  see 

gds,  106,  3  and  n.    i; 

fdngelse,  p.  53,  fn.  i 

£-z'z/a 

orth.,  114;  pr.,  115,  a 

fdrg,  pr.,  19,  2  a  2 

^,  see  giva 

gdrna,  compar.,    174, 

fonster,  ac.;  def.  plur., 

ge-,  stress,  2,  2 

2 

p.  62,  fn.  i 

gen-,  insep.,  231 

gdra,  194,  2 

for,  coll.,  p.  127,  fn.  2; 

genom,  acgr. 

Goteborg,  pr.,  19,  2  a 

for  att,  purpose,  242, 

genus,    ac.;     pr.,     14; 

h,  silent,  16 

n.  3;  for  .  .  .   sedan, 

decl.,  107,  n.  3;  p.  61, 

ha,  see  Aaz/a 

p.  125,  fn.  2 

fa.  3 

Aaofc,  pr.,  73;  195,  n. 

for-,       accent,        236; 

get,  accent,  plur.,  92, 

i;  p.  131,  fn.  4 

stress,  2,  2;  229,  i;in- 

i;  pr.,  14;  decl.,    87, 

hagel,  ac. 

sep.,  231 

»•  5 

halv,   320,  2;  149,  n.; 

forena,  coll.,  191,  3 

giva,  pr.,  14;  103;  200; 

-t,  pr.,  18;  Phon.   38 

f  owning,  ac. 

201,  i;  203,  2;  238,  n. 

halvannan,     halvtre- 

Forenta          staterna, 

i;  coll.,    207,    i;   det 

dje,  320,  n.  i 

stress,  p.  92,  fn.  3 

gives,  235,  n. 

halvviigs,  172,  3;  pr., 

forfaitare,  ac. 

&',  Pr-,  15 

18;  Phon.  38 

forhdllande,  ac. 

gjorde,  gjort,  pr.,  15; 

hammare,  decl.,   in, 

fork  lade,  coll.,  p.  168, 

16 

2;  orth.,  Phon.  18 

fn.  ir 

glddja,  194,  i;p.  130, 

han,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  Phon. 

fornya,  ac. 

fn.  2;  coll.,  199,  i 

18,  b;  264;  36;  see  ho- 

fdrr,forre,forst,  162; 

gn,  pr.,  17;  19,  2  c 

notn,  hans 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 


hand,    87,    n.   4;  pr., 

Hjalmaren,  pr.,  16 

Aora,  with  inf.,  239,  n. 

coll.,  93,  3 

hjdlpa,  pr.,  16 

2;  y<2  A0ra,  262,  3 

handske,  pr.,  16,  c 

hjarta,  pr.,  16;  95,  n. 

hostas,  172,  3 

/tans,  62;  264;  not  re- 

i and  3;  p.  28,  fn.  2; 

i,  in  adv.  phrases,  172, 

flex.,  188;  see  han 

coll.,  105,  2 

3 

hastigt,  pr.,  18;  Phon. 

Holgersson,   ac.;  pr., 

/,  49;  264;  capital,  23; 

38 

103 

cf.  50;  coll.,  53,  i 

hava,    conj.,    42;    71; 

Aow,  pr.,  9,  3  a;  6,  n.  i; 

-i,  3  decl.,  p.  46,  fn. 

195,  n.;  p.  130,  fn.  5; 

Phon.  18,  b;  36;  264; 

3;  coll.,  93,  i 

194,  5;  p.  131,  fn.  4; 

see  henne,  hennes 

icke,    100;  p.    55,  fn.; 

238,   n.    i;  auxiliary, 

honom,  pr.,  Phon.  14 

coll.,  39,  3 

181;  248;  coll.,  39,  4 

A  3  and  22,  4;  coll., 

if  ran,  pr.,  226 

hel,  149,  n.;  cf.  297 

191,  5;  see  han 

igen,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  14 

helig(t),pr.,  18;  Phon. 

hofell,  decl.,  in,  i 

ihjal,  pr.,  16 

38;  coll.,  157,4 

hr,  25 

-/£<?/,  pr.,  6,  n.  i 

heller,  ac. 

hundra,    usually  ac.; 

ilia,  coinpar.,  174,  2 

he  lire,  174,  2 

316;  313,  «• 

tm-,  p.  51,  fn.  2 

Atf/^,  174,  2;  308;  309; 

hundrade,  313,  n. 

z»,    inne,    172,    2,  n.; 

p.  235,  fn.  2 

hundratals,  see  -tal(s} 

orth.,  Phon.  18 

/*£»«,  hemma,  172,   2, 

hur(u)dan,  stress,   p. 

in-,  p.  51,  fn.  2 

n.;  orth.,    Phon.    18; 

220,  fn.  i;  282;   288; 

-/«£•,  2  decl.,  68,  4 

pr.,  6,  n.  i 

coll.,  291,  8  (accent, 

ingen,  293;  cf.  294;  or- 

henne,   coll.,    191,  5; 

p.  225,  fn.  i) 

der,  141;  142,  n.;  in- 

see  hon 

hustru,  decl.,  109;  cf. 

get,  coll.,  311,  i 

hennes,    62;    264;  not 

coll.,  67,  4 

ingendera,  306 

reflex.,  iSS;  see  hon 

huvud,  pr.,  Phon.  14 

ingenting,  307;  order, 

Henrik,  ac. 

A    3;    coll.,    117,    9; 

141;  142,  n. 

herr,  title,  coll.,  39,  2; 

decl.,  in,  2 

-inna,  stress,  2,  3 

129;   not  capital,  24, 

hdlla,  200;  —  pd,  pro-   inne,  see  in 

i  ;  cf  .  herre 

gressive,  245  and  n. 

inre,  compar.,  162 

Herran,  p.  187,  fn.  2 

i  and  2 

inte,  100;  coll.,  39,  3 

herre,  decl.,  69,  n.  3; 

hard,  pr.,  6,  n.  2             intet,  see  ingen 

68,  n.  5;  see  min 

hdrdna,  pr.,  Phon.  14    intressant,  pr.,  Phon. 

-het,  3  decl.,  p.  46,  fn. 

B  2  c                                   49,  3  b 

3 

Mr-,  insep.,  231               -*>£/,  pr.,  6,  n.  i 

heta,  194,  3 

harad,        declension,    -is&,  stress,  2,  5 

himmel,   def.,  p.   35, 

in,  2                               -z(0>     supine,      coll., 

fn.  i 

hog,     compar.,      159;      207,3 

historia,  ac.;  decl.,  p. 

hdg(s~)t,  pr.,  18              -itel,  pr.,  6,  n.  i 

28,  fn.  2;  p.  47,  fn.  2 

hogljudd,  pr.,  16             itu,  314 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 


315 


-turn,  3  decl.,  87,  n.  3; 

koka,  coll.,  191,  3 

Lagerlof,   pr.,    Phon. 

p.  46,  fn.  3;  88,  n.  4 

komma,  200;  p.  57,  fn. 

42,  n. 

j,  pr.,  19,  3;  quantity  of 

2;  auxiliary,  261  ;  fut., 

/o^T",  pr.,  18;  Phon.  38 

preced.  vowel,  6,  n.  i 

136,  i;  fut.  perf.,  185, 

and  n.;  orth.,  196,  2 

ja,  see  jo 

n.  i;   kommo,   orth., 

land,  pr.,  coll.,  157,  4 

jag,  pr.,  19,  3;    coll., 

Phon.   1  8 

Lappland,     ac.;     pr., 

39,  6;  264 

kongrtient,  pr.,  Phon. 

coll.,  117,  10 

Jesus,  gen.  Jesu,  113 

49.  3  t> 

le,  203,  i 

jj/h  25 

konkret,  pr.,  Phon.  49, 

leva,  194,  3 

jo,  p.  57.  fn-  5 

3b 

-lig,  stress,  2,  5 

Johannes,  ac. 

konstnar,  stress,  p.  46, 

ligga,  200;  201,  2;  203, 

/«,  in  questions,  p.  83, 

fn.4 

3;  progressive,  245,  n. 

fn.  i;  with  com  par., 

konung,  -kung,  pr.,  9, 

2 

175;  coll.,  179,  3 

3  1>;  68,  n.  5 

likadan,  269;  stress,  p. 

jul,    capital.,    24,    3;  i 

Kristus,  gen.  Kristi, 

208,  fn.  4 

julas,  172,  3 

US 

lik(^a]soin,  usually  gr.  ; 

juni,  ac.;  capital.,  24,  3 

Kronoberg,  stress,  p. 

pr.,  218,  a;  with  sub- 

k, pr.,  14;  17;  19,  4 

70,  fn.  2 

junctive,  215 

Kalmar     (Ian),     ac.; 

krympa,  203,  3 

lika(sd]  .  .  .  som,  175 

118,  end 

krona,  p.  128,  fn.  5 

Linder,  ac. 

kan,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;orth., 

kunde,  pr.,  coll.,  146, 

-ling,  2  decl.,  68,  4 

Phon.  18,  b;  see  kun- 

7;  see  kunna 

Linnd(gatan),    orth., 

na 

kung,  see  konung 

90 

kanske,  pr.,  14,  n. 

kunna,  138;  136,  n.  2; 

/z'tew,  inflex.,  152;  151, 

kapital,  nr,  i 

'94.  5;  P-  I26,  fn.  10; 

n.    i;    compar.,    161; 

karl,  pr.,   16,  a;  coll., 

auxiliary,      254;     see 

pr.,  coll.,  157,  3 

117,  8 

kan,  kunde 

liter,  ac. 

Karl,  pr.,  16,  a;  A'ar/ 

kvart(s],  320,  n.  2         \.ljud,  pr.,  16 

</<?«  store,  orth.,  24,  4 

kvall,  def.,  coll.,  146,    //>«,  pr.,  16 

Karlsson,  ac. 

6                                         London,  ac. 

Kalarina,  ac. 

kyrka,  pr.,  14;  Phon.    /o^a,  pr.,  9,  3  b 

kejsar(e],  pr.,  14;  12; 

24,  2,  n.                            /«.<>,  106,  3  and  n.  i 

106,  n.  2 

kopa,  pr.,  14;  kopt(e},    lyckligtvis,  order,  141; 

£z7o,  ac.;pr.,  14;  decl., 

coll.,  86,  5 

pr.,  18;  Phon.  38 

106,  4;  p.  53,  fn.  r 

korsbcir,  acgr. 

lag,  compar.,  159  and 

kj\  pr.,  15                            /,  ])r.,   13,  2;  cf.  13,  3; 

n.;      l&gt,     pr.,     18; 

kn,  pr.,  17                            silent,  16  and  a 

Phon.  38 

£«a,  pr.,   17;  def.,  95, 

laboratorium,     acgr.; 

l&g  (verb),  pr.,  coll., 

n.  i;  coll.,  105,  i 

87,  n.  3;  88,  n.  4 

207,  2;  see  ligga 

ko,  decl.,  109 

lade,  coll.,  199,  2 

Idng,  compar.,  159 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 


lata,    200;     auxiliary, 

middag,  ac.;  pr.,  coll., 

mdngen,  pr.,  19,  5  b: 

260;   imperative,    243 

228,  7 

298;    coll.,     311,     4; 

and    n.    2;   lata    bli, 

mig,  pr.,  coll.,  191,  6; 

•jiianffd,  compar.,  161 

250,  n.  2  end 

see/a?- 

manne,    order,  p.  .S3, 

lagga,  194,  2;  p.  130, 

mil,  106,  4 

fn.  i 

fn.  5;  pr.,  197,  2;  see 

tnin,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  65; 

mds/e,  256 

lade,  lagt 

Phon.   18,  b;  32;  264; 

matte,  see  ma 

lagst,  pr.,iS;Phon.3S 

min  frn,  min  herre, 

mcinniska,  pr.,  14,  n. 

Icinge,    compar.,    174, 

coll.,  39,  2 

monster,     def.    plur.. 

i  ;  langre,  p.  no,  fn.  i 

mindre,  minst,  i6i;p. 

coll.,  117,  5 

lar,  auxiliary,  257 

101,  fn.;  17  • 

«,  pr.,  13,  2;  19,  5;  cf. 

Idsning,  pr.,  Phon.  14 

Mindre    Asien,    ac.; 

13,   3;   silent,    16,  d; 

B2C 

orth.,  24,  4 

quantity    of    preced- 

Id pa,  p.  139,  fn.  i;pr., 

miss-,  insep.,  231 

ing  vowel,  6,  n.  i 

205,  b 

mo(de}r,   accent,   74, 

'«,'««,  pronoun,  coll., 

m,  quantity  of  preced- 

2; 68,  n.  4  and  5;  p. 

191,  5 

ing  vowel,  6,  n.  i 

35,  fn.  2;  coll.,  75,  3 

-nad,    3   decl.,    p.   46, 

-ma,  nouns  ending  in, 

mogna,  pr.,  Phon.  14 

fn.  3 

P-  53,  fn.  i 

B  2C 

Nationalmuseum,  pr., 

mala,  193,  n. 

mor,  see  'moder 

19,  7b2;  gen.,  113 

man,  106,  3  and  4;  p. 

Mora    (socken),    118, 

ned,  172,  2,  n.;   coll., 

60,  fn.  6;  orth.,  6,  n. 

end 

170,  i;  179,  i 

i;    Phon.    18;    coll., 

morgon,  decl.,  68,  n. 

nedfor,  ac.;   stress,  p. 

H7,  8 

3;  pr.,  73;  16,  b;coll., 

145,  fn.  2 

man,    pronoun,    304; 

75,8 

nedre,    acgr.,    169,    i; 

221,  n.  4;  coll.,    311, 

morse,  172,  3 

compar.,  162 

3;  cf.  228,  i 

mus,  106,  3,  and  n.  i 

neger,  ac. 

Matteus,  Mattei,  ac.; 

museum,  usually  ac.; 

nej,  pr.,  12;  6,  n.  i;  p. 

"3 

pr.,  8,  2,  n.;  87,  n.  3; 

114,  fn.  2 

med,  105,  5;  pr.,  coll., 

88,  n.  4 

ner(e),  see  ned 

170,  4 

muskel,  ac. 

neutrum,   usually  ac.; 

medicine,  pr.,  19,  i  b 

mycken,  compar.,  161; 

pr.,  Phon.  35;  113 

i;  "3 

mycket,  pr.,  coll.,  53, 

ng,  pr.,  19,  5  b;  syllab- 

men, pr.,6,  n.  i;  Phon. 

5 

ication,  22,  n. 

18,  b 

ma,  253;  208;  209;  21  1  ; 

ni,  35;  49;  264;   coll., 

mena,  coll.,  191,  3 

214;  p.   148,  fn.  3;  p. 

39,  2;  capital.,  23 

mer(a],  tnest,  accent, 

150,  fn.  2 

-ning,  2  decl.,  68,  4 

169,  i;  161;  165;  167; 

mdnad,    coll.,    93,   3; 

nio,   coll.,    324,    i;   p. 

173;  174,  n. 

j'uni   (etc.)  —  ,    120, 

245,  fn.  i 

meter,  ac.;  106,  4 

end;  130 

nog,  order,  141 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 


317 


noga,  compar.,  158,  n. 

ond,  compar.,  161  and 

r,  pr.,  13,  i  and  3;  note 

2;  173,  end 

n.;  pr.,  coll.,  170,  4 

preceding  8 

Norge,  ac. 

opp,  coll.,  134,  i 

rd,  pr.,  13,  3;  quantity 

not,  p.  63,  fn.  i 

oppe,  coll.,  179,  i 

of  preceding   vowel, 

numcra,  acgr. 

Oskar,  acgr. 

6,  n.  2 

nummcr,  ac. 

ovan,  pr.,  9,  3  b 

regna,  pr.,  19,  20 

ny,  151,  n.  5 

palats,  in,  i 

revolution,  pr.,  Phon. 

nysa,  203,  3  and  4 

papper,  def.,  p.  6i,fn. 

54,  4  b 

nagon,  292;  cf.  294;  p. 

4;  coll.,  117,  5 

r/,  r«,  pr.,  13,  3;  quan- 

93, fn.;  coll.,  311,   5; 

partisk,  ac. 

tity      of      preceding 

ndgra,  pr.,   Phon.  14 

Pa  it  1  us,     Pauli,     ac.; 

vowel,  6,  n.  2 

B  2  b 

pr.,  12;  113 

ros,  declension,  57,  n.; 

nagondera,  306 

pengar,  ac. 

58.  n. 

ndgonsin,  coll.,  207,  4 

personlig,  ac.;   Phon. 

rs,  pr.,  13,  3 

ndgonting,  307;  coll., 

14  B  2  c 

rt,  pr.,  13,3;  quantity 

3".  5 

Pettersson,  ac. 

of  preceding   vowel, 

-«#r,  3decl.,  p.  46,  fn. 

piano,  acgr.;  94,  2;  95, 

6,  n.  2 

3 

n.  i 

Ryssland,     ac.;      pr., 

nara,  compar.,  158,  n. 

pillcr,    def.    plur.,    p. 

coll.,  157,  4 

2;  173,  end;  p.  100,  fn. 

62,  fn.  .1 

rp'rf,  pr.,  coll.,  53,  6 

jAVr'r/r,  ac. 

poem,     in,     i;      pr., 

n)«a,  p.  128,  fn.  5 

ndje,  pr.,  6,  n.  i 

Phon.  20,  2 

s,  pr.,  13,  2;  19,  6;  cf. 

not,  plur.,  accent,  92, 

prcsens,  ac. 

13,3 

i  ;  87)n.  5 

princip,  pr.,  19,  i  b  i 

s-form,         deponents, 

o-,  p.  51,  fn.  2 

prinsessa,  title,  129 

225;  reflexive,  233,  n. 

ocean,  pr.,  19,  i  b  i 

problem,  decl.,  in,  i; 

3  ;  see  s-passive 

och,  pr.,  19,  i  a;  coll., 

pr.,  Phon.  20,  2 

^-passive,  221;  222,  n. 

39,  6;  with  numerals, 

professor,  accent,  92, 

2;  cf.  224;  cf.  225,  n. 

3165319.  3 

4;  87,  n.  6;  title,  129; 

i  and  2;  impersonal, 

ock,  coll.,  105,  5 

capital..  24,  i 

235,  3;  coll.,  228,  2 

ocksa,  acgr.;  coll.,  105, 

promenera,  ac. 

sade,  coll.,  105,  4;  see 

5 

pronomen,  ac.;  113;  p. 

saga 

offer,  ac. 

64,  fn.  i 

sadcl,  acgr. 

ofta,  order,   141;  corn- 

pros/,  pr.,  9,  3  a;  title, 

sagt,  pr.,  18;  Phon.  38 

par.,  174,  i 

129 

and  n. 

oj,  pr.,  12 

psykolog,  pr.,  9,  3  b; 

sak,  accent,  plur.,  92,  I 

ologiskt,  pr.,  177,  b 

Phon.  50,  n.  2 

sakta,    compar.,    173, 

om,  omitted,  140;  215; 

pulver,     def.      plur., 

end 

pr.,6,  n.  i;  Phon.  18, 

coll.,  117,  5 

sa»i-,  insep.,  231 

a 

<?.  i 

samma,  acgr.;  266  and 

318 


INDEX  OF  WORDS 


n.  4;  268;  coll.,  273, 

9;  149,  n.;i87,  n.;  233, 

smorja,     194,     i;   pr., 

10;  satnnte,  266,  n.  i 

n.  2 

197,  2 

sch,  pr.,  13,  4;  19,  6  b; 

sjo,     pr.,    13,    4;    till 

snart,  order,  141;  pr., 

syllabication,  22,  11. 

sjoss,  pr.,  132,  a 

6,  n.  2 

se,    203,    i;  with  inf., 

sk,  pr.,   13,  4;  14;  syl- 

socken, ac.;  pr.,  73;  69^ 

239,  n.  2;  fa  se,  262, 

labication,  22,  n. 

n.  4;  coll.,  75,  4 

3;  se  .  .  .  ut,  p.  125, 

ska(ll),co\\.,  146,  2 

som,  relative,  274;  275; 

fn.  i 

-skap,  3  decl.,  p.  46, 

cf.  277;  cf.  276,  n.    i; 

sedan,    compar.,    162, 

fa.  3 

p.  "215,  fn.  5;  281,  n. 

end;   174,    3;  p.  102, 

skilja,  pr.,  14;  194,  i 

i;  after  allt,  p.  217, 

fn.  i;  p.    no,   fn.   6; 

skj\  pr.,  15 

fn.;  coll.,  291,  2;  sign 

coll.,  146,  4',  for  .  .  . 

sko,  109 

of  subject,  278;    289, 

sedan,  p.  125,  fn.  2 

skogsbacke,  pr.,  18 

!;  3°9!  som  heist,  308 

scgla,  pr.,  Phon.  14  B 

skola,  252;  future,  136, 

sow,  with  subjunctive. 

2  C 

2,    and   n.   1-3;  coll., 

215;  with  obj.,  coll., 

sen,  see  sedan 

146,   2 

273,2 

scnare;  den  —  ,  320,  n. 

skulle,       subjunctive, 

sotnlig,  301 

3 

208;  210;  212;  215;  p. 

seminar,  68,  n.  3;  69, 

si,  pr.,  13,  4;  19,  6 

149,  fn.  3;  p.  150,  fn. 

n.  2;  orth.,  Phon.  18, 

siden,  definite,  p.  61, 

2  ;  see  skola 

a;  coll.,  75,  2 

fn.  4 

skynda,  pr.,  14 

somras,  172,  3 

sig,  264;  187;  304;  pr., 

skalva,  pr.,  14;  p.  139, 

somt,  301 

coll.,  191,  6 

fn.  i 

son,  87,  n.  4;  accent, 

Si  grid,  ac. 

skiink,  p.  63,  fn.  I 

plur.,  92,  i;  pr.,  9,  3 

simma,  203,  4;  p.  142, 

skara,  pr.,  14;   conju- 

b; coll.,  86,  5 

fn.  3 

gation,  200 

sova,  pr.,  9,  3  b;  200; 

sin,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  264; 

sko'n,  pr.,  14 

p.  57,  fn.  2;  p.  138,  fn. 

iSS;  p.  122,  fn.  i  and 

s/o§V),3i9,  4 

7 

25304 

slog,  pr.,  coll.,  207,  2; 

spcla,  coll.,  191,  3 

sist,  162,  end 

see  sld 

sporja,  194,  i;pr.,  197, 

sitta,  203,  3;  progress- 

sluta, 203,  4 

2 

ive,  245,  n.  2 

sld,  203,   i;  sldss,  225, 

ssi,  pr.,  13,  4;  19,  6  b 

sj,  pr.,   13,  4;  syllabi- 

and n.  i  ;  see  slog 

stad,  accent,  plur..  92, 

cation,  22,  n. 

slcikt,  adj.,  153 

i  ;  coll.,  86,  4 

sjuk,  pr.,  13,  4 

««<!,     152;      compar., 

stj,  pr.,  13,  4;  19,  6  b 

sjunga,  pr.,  13,  4;  19, 

160;  p.  101,  fn. 

stjcila,  200;  202,  n.;  pr., 

5b 

Smdland,      ac.;      pr., 

19,  6  b 

sjuttio,  usually  ac. 

coll.,  134,  5 

stjarna,  pr.,  19,  6  b 

sjalv,  pr.,  13,  4;-^,pr., 

swalla,  p.  139,  fn.  i 

Stjarnhok,  pr.,  19,  6  b 

18;  Phon.  38;  264,  n.    smalta,  p.  139,  fn.  i 

Stockholm,  acgr. 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 


319 


stod,  pr.,  coll.,  207,  2; 

salja,  194.  i 

7  a;  coll.,  324,  i  and 

p.  143,  fn.  3  (stag) 

sallan,  order,  141 

6;  p.  245,  fn.  i 

stor,  com  par.,  159 

sander;   i  —  ,  319,  3; 

tj&na,  coll.,  191,  3 

strdnder,  plur.,  ac. 

coll.,  324,  5 

toffel,  ac.  ;  57,  n.  ;  58,  n. 

sfudera,  ac.;  184,  n. 

sdtta,  194,  2 

trenne,  314;  coll.,  324, 

sfudiutn,  ac. 

So  (  de  )  rm  an  land,  ac  .  ; 

2 

std,   203,    i;  progress- 

coll., 134,  5 

tretti(o),  usually  ac.; 

ive,  245,  n.  2;  see  stod 

sonder,  ac. 

315;    p.    245,    fn.    i; 

stodja,  194,  i;  p.  130, 

/,  pr.,  13,  2;  cf.  13,  3 

coll.,  324,  i 

fn.  2;  coll.,  -199,  i 

-t  omitted,   coll.,   su- 

Trollhatte     (kanal), 

stovel,  ac.;  pr.,  p.  136, 

pine  and  past  part., 

118,  end 

fn.  ii 

207,  3;  def.  sing.,  53, 

trdng,    compar.,     159 

Sven,  pr.,  6,  n.  i 

3;  adjectives,  157,  3; 

and  n. 

srcnsk,  pr.,    9,     i    c; 

my  eke  t,  53,  5 

tra(d),  pr.,  coll.,  105, 

svenskt,  coll.,  86,    5; 

V  pronoun,  colL,   191, 

6 

orth.,  24,  2 

5 

tradgdrd,  usually  ac.  ; 

Si'cnsson,  ac. 

ta(ga],    200;    203,    2; 

pr.,  16,  c 

Si'er(i)ge,ac.;pr.,  19, 

238,  n.  i;  coll.,  207,  i 

/«,  314 

2  a  2 

tala,  coll.,  191,  3 

turn,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  106, 

svcilja,  p.  129,  fn.  3 

-tal(s),  172,  3;  319.  5 

4;  gender,  p.  60,  fn.  5 

svalta,  200;  203,  4;  p. 

te,  p.  46,  fn.  2 

tttng,  compar.,  159 

138,  fn.  4 

teater,  acgr. 

Turkiet,  ac.;  128 

svdr(j)a,  200;  pr.,  205, 

Tegne"r,  pr.,   19,  2  c; 

tusen,  ac.;  313,  n.;3i6 

b 

orth.,  90 

tusende,  313,  n. 

synas,  p.  128,  fn.  5 

telejonera,  ac.;  184,  n. 

tvenne,  314;  coll.,  324, 

syster,  accent,   74,    2 

//,  pr.,  13,  4;  19,  7  b 

2 

s<l,   with    subordinate 

tidig(t],  pr.,  i8;coll., 

tvinga,  203,  4;  p.  142, 

clause,      139,     n.    3; 

228,  7 

fn.  4 

coll.,  146,   i;  sd  .  .  . 

/?*£-«,  203,  3 

tvd,  with  bdda,  bagge, 

som,  175 

till,    pr.,    coll.,  53,  6; 

300 

sadan,  ac.;  269;  p.  93, 

with    gen.,    122;    till 

/yd,    verb,   203,    3;   p. 

fn.;  coll.,  273,  ii 

dods,  pr.,   18;  177,  a; 

132,  fn.;  coll.,  207,  7 

sdlcdcs,  usually  gr. 

Phon.  38 

tvatta,  coll.,  207,  7 

sdsom,    coll.,   220,    3; 

tillbaka,  ac.;  pr.,  coll., 

/>>,  coll.,  p.  127,  fn.  2 

sdsoni      (om],     with 

228,7 

Tyskland,  ac. 

subjunctive,  215 

tillsammans,  acgr. 

<ys/fc(/0,   orth.,    24,    2; 

saga,  pr.,  18;  103;  197, 

-#«£-,  307 

pr.,  coll.,  86,  5 

i  and  2  ;  Phon  .  38  and 

tio,  coll.,  324,  i 

td,  109 

n.;  194,  2;  p.  130,  fn.  5 

#,  pr.,  19,  7  a 

/<!/a,  p.  128,  fn.  5;  193, 

saker,  ac. 

tjugo,  tjugu,  pr.,    19, 

n. 

•  320 


INDEX  OF  WORDS 


tiimja,  p.  129,  fn.  3 

var,  past  of  vara,  pr., 

137;  136,  n.  2;  orth., 

for,  258 

coll.,  207,  2 

Phon.   17;  auxiliary, 

loras,  p.  130,  fn.  3 

z/am,  34;  42;  46,  3;  71; 

255;  coll.,  199,  3 

u,  pr.,  8,  2,  n. 

200;  p.  138,  fn.  7;  pr.,    vilken,  acgr.;  relative, 

urn-,  insep.,  231 

coll.,  39,  6;  subjunc- 

274; 276;  281,  n.  i;p. 

und-,  insep.,  231 

tive,    p.  148,    fn.    2; 

215,  fn.  5;  coll.,  291, 

under,  ac. 

auxiliary,  249;  in  pas- 

2; interrog.,  282;  284; 

undre,  -acgr.,    169,  i; 

sive,  222;  224;  p.  162, 

p.  223,  fn.;p.  220,  fn. 

compar..  162 

fn.  i;  with  past  part., 

3;  pr.,  coll.,  291,  10 

ung,  compar.,  159 

223,  n.;  241,  n.;  past 

vilkendera,  282;  287 

-ung,  2  decl.,  68,  4 

for  present,  244  (coll.  , 

rin,  p.  46,  fn.   2;   ac- 

universitet, pr.,  8,  2, 

246,  4) 

cent,  plur.,  92,  i 

n. 

varandra,  usually  gr.; 

vinter,    ac.;    vintras, 

upp(e],     172,    2,     n.; 

264,  n.  8 

172,3 

coll.,  134,  i;  179,  i   ' 

varannan,  var  tredje, 

visa,  coll.,  191,  3 

Up(p}sala,  orth.,   90; 

etc.,  295,  n.  2 

Visingso,     stress,    p. 

—  universitet,     118, 

varda,  pr.,  205,  b;  p. 

106,  fn.  3 

end 

138,  fn.  7;  p.  139,  fn. 

v&g*  57,  n.;  58,  n. 

-us,  def.,  107,  n.  3 

i;  auxiliary,  251;    in 

var,  48;  61;  264 

ut(e),  172,  2,  n. 

passive,     222;       224; 

vdras,  172,  3 

z>,  pr.,  18 

coll.,  228,  5 

riidcr,  ac. 

va,  see  z/arf,  var 

vardera,  306 

val,   order,    141;  corn- 

backer,  ac.,  66,  2 

varenda,  295,  n.  3 

par.,  174,  2 

vad,  relative,  274;  278; 

varfor,  ac. 

valja,  194,  i;  pr.,  197, 

281,   n.  i;   interrog., 

varifrdn,    ac.;  stress, 

2 

282;    285;  pr.,    coll., 

p.  125,  fn.  3 

van,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  orth.. 

134,4;  vadfdren(a], 

varje,  296;  coll.,  311,  2 

Phon.  18,  b 

282;  286;  coll.,  291,  7 

vars,  274;  277;  276,  n. 

Viincrn,  acgr. 

van-,  insep.,  231 

2;  coll.,  291,  3 

vanja,  194,  i;  pr.,  197, 

vanlig,  pr.,  Phon.   14 

vatten,  ac. 

2 

B2C 

veder-,  insep.,  231 

vardera,  ac. 

vapen,  ac. 

vem,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  282; 

varld,  pr.,  16,  a 

var,  pronoun,  295;  var 

283;  p.  220,  fn.  2 

Vdrmland,          acgr.  ; 

och  en,  295;  var  sin, 

verb,  in,  i 

coll.,  134,  5 

295,  n.  i;  en  och  var, 

veta,  194,  5;  p.  131,  fn. 

Vastergotland,    coll., 

coll.,    311,      2;     var 

2;  fa  veta,  262,  3 

157,  4 

tredje,  etc.,  see  var- 

vi,  264 

Vast  eras  (stad),   118, 

annan 

vid,  pr.,  coll.,  134,  4 

end 

var,   adv.,   pr.,    coll., 

Viktor,  ac. 

Vattern,  acgr. 

75,8 

vilja,    194,    5;    197,  2; 

ya^ra,  203,  4 

INDEX  OF  WORDS 


w,  i;  pr.,  19,  8 

a,  i;  pr.,  9,  5;  n 

o,  i;  pr.,  8,  4;  ii 

Wilhchn,    acgr.;    pr., 

Sdel,  ac. 

oga,  1  10;  p.  28,  fn.  2; 

19,  8 

akta,     153;     compar., 

P-  53.  f«-  i 

x,  pr.,  19,  9;  quantitv 

158,  n.  2 

<?;',  pr.,  12 

of  preceding    vowel, 

didst,  pr.,  1  6,  c 

Oland,  ac.;  coll.,  170, 

6,  n.  i;  syllabication, 

an,  pr.,  6,  n.  i;  with 

4 

22,  n. 

obj.      personal     pro- 

ora,  no;  p.  28,  fn.  2; 

y,  i;pr.,  9,  4;  ii 

noun,    coll.,    273,  2; 

P-  53,  fn.  i 

yngre,  ac.,  169,  i 

with  indefinite  rela- 

Orebro(lcin), iiS.end 

yttre,  ac.;  com  par.,  162 

tive  309 

Ostergdlland,      coll., 

z,  use,  i;  pr.,  19,  10 

anka,  pr.,  19,  5  a  I 

134,5 

a,  i;  pr.,  8,  3;  n 

ar,     aro,     see    vara; 

<?z/^r,  ac. 

d,  see  att,  av,  och 

coll.,    39,  6;  ate*  ar, 

overallt,  stress,  p.  166, 

d-,  insep.,  231 

235,  n. 

fn.  i 

dkcr,  ac. 

a/a,  200 

ovre,    acgr.,    169,     i; 

dter,  ac. 

aven,  coll.,  105,  5 

compar.,    162 

322 

NOTES  AND  CORRECTIONS. 

§  6,  note  2.  It  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  a  of  fijarfa  in  §  13,  3 
is  long.  No  examples  of  a  long  vowel  before  rt  were  intended  to 
be  given;  art  is  an  example. 

§  9,  i  b.     Unstressed  e  in  endings  is  also  like  the  "a"  in  "ago". 

§  39,  i.  It  must  not  be  inferred  that  den  heir  is  in  the  written 
language  followed  by  the  noun  in  the  indefinite  form. 

§  90.  In  a  few  words,  not  very  common,  ^  sometimes  occurs 
also  medially,  though  usage  varies.  In  proper  names,  however, 
medial  ^  is  more  common,  as  in  Tegn^r,  the  example  given  in  the 
grammar. 

§  124.     Omit  the  example:     Han  dog  ar  1870. 

Page  97,  vocabulary.     Land  may  also    have    the    plural   Hinder. 

Page  128,  foot-note  5.  In  addition  to  the  verbs  here  listed  as 
irregularly  belonging  to  lib,  there  are  a  number  of  verbs  that  in 
the  spoken  language  may  have  the  forms  of  lib,  though  belonging 
to  other  conjugations.  See  §  191,  3. 

§  214,  2.  The  inversion,  when  om  is  omitted,  should  perhaps 
have  been  expressly  stated  (cf.  §  215,  end);  it  is  referred  to  (,§  140, 
beginning)  in  the  foot-note. 

§  229,  2.  Read:  "The  verb  proper  normally  stands  first,  .  .  ." 
In  case  of  emphasis  the  affix  may  stand  first. 

§  281,  note  2.  Observe  that  also  the  verb  in  the  principal  clause 
stands  last  in  two  of  the  examples  given. 

§  289.  Read:  "When  an  interrogative  is  the  subject,  or  modi- 
fies the  subject,  of  an  indirect  question,  ..."  I  am  referring  to 
adjective  pronouns  and  the  genitive  of  the  interrogatives. 

§  297,  line  4.  When  hel  means  "all",  it  is  always  in  the  defin- 
ite form;  cf.  page  126,  foot-note  12. 

Appendix  I,  1.  From  the  use  of  the  word  "only"  in  the  case 
of  the  examples  of  monosyllables  in  the  First  Declension,  it  must 
not  be  inferred  that  also  the  other  examples  are  the  only  ones. 
Similarly  in  Appendix  I,  3. 

Appendix  I,  2  B  b.  The  example  hustru,  given  under  Irregular, 
is  purposely  omitted  from  the  generalizing  remarks  in  the  column 
to  the  extreme  left. 


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